Bulfinch’s Mythology · Chapters

Chapters explained

Chapter companions for Bulfinch’s Mythology by Thomas Bulfinch.

Chapter 1
Publishers’ Preface
The publishers introduce Thomas Bulfinch, his background, and his works, explaining the additions made to this edition, including expanded Northern Mythology, British hero myths, and a revised index.
Chapter 2
Author's Preface
Thomas Bulfinch introduces his work on mythology, arguing that knowledge of classical and medieval fables is essential for understanding English literature. He explains his method of retelling myths in prose to make them accessible and enjoyable, and emphasizes the cultural and educational value of these stories for American readers.
Chapter 3
Bulfinch's Mythology
This chapter provides an overview of classical and medieval myths, including stories of gods, heroes, and legendary figures from Greek, Roman, and Arthurian traditions, as compiled by Thomas Bulfinch.
Chapter 4
Stories of Gods and Heroes
This chapter introduces the foundational myths of gods and heroes, exploring their origins, adventures, and the moral lessons embedded in their stories. It covers the rise of Jupiter, the abduction of Proserpine, and the exploits of heroes like Perseus and Hercules, emphasizing themes of hubris, love, and heroism.
Chapter 5
Introduction
This introductory chapter discusses the decline of Roman power, the rise of chivalry, the training of knights, and the origins of medieval romances, including the legendary figures of Arthur and Charlemagne. It explains how chivalry emerged as a check on lawless power, the role of knights-errant, and the development of metrical and prose romances from sources like Geoffrey of Monmouth and Sir Thomas Malory's Morte d'Arthur.
Chapter 6
Roman Divinities
This chapter introduces the distinct Roman deities, including Saturn, Faunus, Quirinus, Bellona, Terminus, Pales, Pomona, Flora, Lucina, Vesta, Liber, Mulciber, Janus, the Penates, the Lares, and the concepts of Genius and Juno, along with their roles and attributes.
Chapter 7
Prometheus and Pandora
This chapter recounts the Greek myth of creation, beginning with Chaos and the separation of earth, sea, and sky. It describes how Prometheus and Epimetheus were tasked with creating man and animals, and how Prometheus stole fire from heaven to benefit mankind, incurring Jupiter's wrath. As punishment, Jupiter created Pandora, the first woman, who opened a jar releasing plagues upon humanity, leaving only hope inside. The chapter then describes the subsequent ages of man—Golden, Silver, Brazen, and Iron—and concludes with Jupiter's decision to destroy humanity by flood.
Chapter 8
III: Apollo and Daphne—Pyramus and Thisbe—Cephalus and Procris
The chapter recounts three tragic love stories from classical mythology. First, Apollo, after slaying the serpent Python, is struck by Cupid's golden arrow and pursues the nymph Daphne, who, fleeing his advances, is transformed into a laurel tree. Second, the Babylonian lovers Pyramus and Thisbe, forbidden to marry, communicate through a crack in a wall and plan to elope, but a series of misunderstandings leads to their double suicide. Third, Cephalus, a hunter, inadvertently kills his wife Procris when she, suspicious of his calls to the breeze, hides in the bushes and is struck by his javelin.
Chapter 9
Apollo and Daphne
Apollo, proud after slaying Python, mocks Cupid's archery, prompting Cupid to shoot him with a golden arrow of love and Daphne with a leaden arrow of aversion. Apollo pursues the nymph Daphne, who flees in horror and prays to her father Peneus for rescue. She is transformed into a laurel tree, which Apollo adopts as his sacred symbol, decreeing its leaves eternal and using them for crowns, harp, and quiver.
Chapter 10
Pyramus and Thisbe
The tragic love story of Pyramus and Thisbe, two Babylonian youths forbidden to marry by their parents. They communicate through a crack in the wall and plan to elope, meeting at the Tomb of Ninus under a white mulberry tree. Thisbe arrives first but flees from a lioness, dropping her veil which the lioness tears and bloodies. Pyramus, finding the veil, believes Thisbe is dead and kills himself. Thisbe returns, finds Pyramus dying, and also takes her own life. Their blood stains the mulberries purple forever, and their parents honor their wish to be buried together.
Chapter 11
Cephalus and Procris
Cephalus, a beautiful youth devoted to hunting, is loved by Aurora but remains faithful to his wife Procris. Procris, favored by Diana, gives him a magical dog and javelin. After a race between the dog Lelaps and a ravaging fox ends in both being turned to stone, Cephalus continues hunting alone, often calling for a 'breeze' to cool him. A passerby misinterprets his words, leading Procris to spy on him. Mistaking her for an animal, Cephalus throws his javelin and fatally wounds her. Before dying, Procris begs him not to marry the 'Breeze,' revealing the misunderstanding.
Chapter 12
IV: Juno and Her Rivals, Io and Callisto—Diana and Actaeon—Latona and the Rustics
Juno's jealousy leads her to punish Jupiter's mortal lovers Io and Callisto, transforming Io into a heifer guarded by Argus and Callisto into a bear before Jupiter places them among the stars. Diana punishes Actaeon for accidentally seeing her bathe by turning him into a stag, who is then torn apart by his own hounds. Latona's story of punishing Lycian rustics who insulted her is recalled as a parallel to divine retribution.
Chapter 13
Callisto
Juno, jealous of Callisto for captivating Jupiter, transforms her into a bear. Callisto retains her human consciousness and suffers greatly, even nearly being killed by her own son Arcas. Jupiter intervenes, snatching both and placing them in the heavens as the Great and Little Bear constellations. Juno, enraged, persuades the ocean powers to forbid these constellations from ever setting beneath the ocean.
Chapter 14
Diana and Actaeon
The chapter recounts the myth of Actaeon, who accidentally stumbles upon the goddess Diana bathing with her nymphs in a secluded cave. As punishment for invading her privacy, Diana splashes water on him and transforms him into a stag. Actaeon is then hunted and killed by his own hounds, unable to reveal his identity. The chapter also includes a reference to Shelley's poem 'Adonais,' which alludes to this story.
Chapter 15
Latona and the Rustics
The chapter recounts the myth of Latona, who, while fleeing Juno's jealousy and carrying her infant twins Apollo and Diana, is denied water by Lycian rustics. In anger, she curses them, and they are transformed into frogs. The story is used to explain an allusion in Milton's sonnet and references Delos as the birthplace of the twins.
Chapter 16
Phaëton
Phaëton, son of Apollo and Clymene, seeks proof of his divine parentage after being mocked. He travels to the Sun's palace, where his father Phoebus reluctantly grants him a wish. Phaëton asks to drive the sun chariot for a day. Despite Apollo's warnings about the dangers, Phaëton insists. He loses control of the horses, causing the earth to catch fire, cities to burn, and landscapes to be devastated. Ultimately, the world is thrown into chaos.
Chapter 17
Midas—Baucis and Philemon
The chapter recounts two myths from Phrygia. First, King Midas is granted the golden touch by Bacchus, which becomes a curse until he washes it away in the Pactolus River. He later judges a music contest between Pan and Apollo, and is punished with ass's ears for his poor judgment. The second story tells of Baucis and Philemon, an elderly couple who hospitably entertain Jupiter and Mercury in disguise. As a reward, their cottage is transformed into a temple, and they are granted a wish to die together, eventually turning into two intertwined trees.
Chapter 18
Baucis and Philemon
Jupiter and Mercury, disguised as weary travelers, seek shelter in Phrygia but are turned away by all except the elderly couple Baucis and Philemon, who offer humble hospitality. The gods reveal themselves, spare the couple from a flood that destroys the inhospitable village, transform their cottage into a temple, and grant their wish to die together. The couple are turned into intertwined trees.
Chapter 19
Proserpine—Glaucus and Scylla
This chapter recounts the myth of Proserpine's abduction by Pluto, Ceres' search for her daughter, and the origin of the seasons. It also tells the story of Glaucus, a fisherman turned sea-god, who falls in love with Scylla. When Scylla rejects him, he seeks Circe's help, but Circe, jealous, transforms Scylla into a monster. The chapter includes Keats' poetic retelling of the tale.
Chapter 20
Glaucus and Scylla
Glaucus, a fisherman transformed into a sea-god, falls in love with the nymph Scylla, who spurns him. He seeks the help of the enchantress Circe, who, jealous of his devotion to Scylla, uses her magic to transform Scylla into a hideous monster surrounded by serpents and barking beasts. Scylla becomes a terror to mariners, destroying six of Ulysses' companions and later being turned into a rock. The chapter also includes Keats' alternative version where Glaucus is cursed by Circe and eventually restored by Endymion.
Chapter 21
VIII: Pygmalion—Dryope—Venus and Adonis—Apollo and Hyacinthus
This chapter recounts four classical myths of love, transformation, and loss. Pygmalion, a sculptor who abhors women, falls in love with his own ivory statue, which Venus brings to life. Dryope unknowingly plucks a lotus that is the transformed nymph Lotis, leading to her own metamorphosis into a tree. Venus warns her beloved Adonis against hunting dangerous beasts, but he is killed by a boar; she transforms his blood into the anemone flower. Apollo accidentally kills his beloved Hyacinthus during a game of quoits and creates the hyacinth flower marked with his grief.
Chapter 22
Dryope
Dryope and her sister Iole gather flowers by a stream, but Dryope unknowingly breaks branches from the nymph Lotis, who had been transformed into a lotus plant. As punishment, Dryope is gradually turned into a tree, while her family watches in horror. She bids farewell to her husband, sister, father, and infant son, warning them to respect all plants as potential deities.
Chapter 23
Venus and Adonis
Venus is accidentally wounded by Cupid's arrow and falls deeply in love with the mortal Adonis. She abandons her heavenly haunts to follow him through the wilderness, warning him to avoid dangerous beasts like lions and boars. She recounts the story of Atalanta and Hippomenes as a cautionary tale, then departs in her swan-drawn chariot. Disregarding her advice, Adonis hunts a wild boar, is fatally gored, and dies. Venus returns, mourns him, and transforms his blood into the short-lived anemone flower, promising annual remembrance.
Chapter 24
Apollo and Hyacinthus
Apollo, the god of music and archery, falls deeply in love with the mortal youth Hyacinthus. They spend their days together in various sports and pastimes until a tragic accident occurs during a game of quoits. Apollo's discus strikes Hyacinthus fatally, and despite the god's desperate efforts, the youth dies. Apollo transforms Hyacinthus's blood into a flower, the hyacinth, and marks its petals with a sign of his grief. The story is also attributed to the jealousy of Zephyrus, the West Wind, who may have deliberately caused the accident.
Chapter 25
Ceyx and Halcyone: or, the Halcyon Birds
King Ceyx of Thessaly, grieving over his brother's death and ominous signs, decides to consult the oracle of Apollo. His wife Halcyone, daughter of Aeolus, pleads to accompany him but he refuses. During the voyage, a violent storm destroys the ship and Ceyx drowns. Juno sends Iris to Somnus, who dispatches Morpheus to appear as Ceyx's ghost to Halcyone. She awakens in grief, goes to the shore, and discovers her husband's body.
Chapter 26
Vertumnus and Pomona
Pomona, a wood-nymph devoted to gardening and fruit cultivation, spurns all suitors, including the god Vertumnus, who repeatedly gains access to her orchard in various disguises. Finally, he appears as an old woman and tells her the story of Iphis and Anaxarete to warn against cruelty in love. He then reveals his true youthful form, and Pomona, won over by his arguments and appearance, returns his love.
Chapter 27
Cupid and Psyche
The chapter recounts the myth of Cupid and Psyche, in which the mortal princess Psyche, whose beauty rivals Venus, is forced to undergo a series of trials set by the jealous goddess. With Cupid's secret aid, Psyche completes each task, but her curiosity leads her to open a forbidden box, causing a deep sleep. Cupid rescues her, and with Jupiter's intervention, Psyche is made immortal and united with Cupid, symbolizing the soul's purification through suffering.
Chapter 28
Cadmus—The Myrmidons
Cadmus, sent by his father Agenor to find his sister Europa, consults the oracle of Apollo and is told to follow a cow and build a city where it stops. He follows the cow to the plain of Panope, where he decides to offer a sacrifice to Jupiter. His servants are killed by a serpent sacred to Mars. Cadmus slays the serpent and, following a divine voice, sows its teeth, which sprout into armed warriors who fight among themselves until only five survive. These five help Cadmus build Thebes. Cadmus marries Harmonia, daughter of Venus, but a fatality hangs over his family. Eventually, Cadmus and Harmonia are turned into serpents. The chapter also recounts the origin of the Myrmidons: after a plague sent by Juno devastates Aegina, King Aeacus prays to Jupiter and sees a swarm of ants transformed into men, whom he names Myrmidons. These men later become the soldiers of Achilles.
Chapter 29
The Myrmidons
King Aeacus recounts to Cephalus the devastating plague sent by Juno that destroyed the people of Aegina, and how he prayed to Jupiter, who transformed ants into a new race of diligent subjects called the Myrmidons, who now populate the island and are offered as allies for the war against Minos.
Chapter 30
XIII: Nisus and Scylla—Echo and Narcissus—Clytie—Hero and Leander
This chapter recounts four tragic love stories from classical mythology. In 'Nisus and Scylla,' Scylla betrays her father by cutting off his magical purple lock to win King Minos, who rejects her in horror; she is transformed into a bird, pursued by her father turned sea-eagle. 'Echo and Narcissus' tells of Echo, a nymph cursed to only repeat others' words, who pines for the self-absorbed Narcissus; he falls in love with his own reflection and dies, becoming a flower. 'Clytie' describes a water-nymph who, spurned by Apollo, wastes away gazing at the sun and is turned into a sunflower. 'Hero and Leander' relates the tragic fate of Leander, who drowns while swimming the Hellespont to visit his beloved Hero, who then commits suicide.
Chapter 31
Nisus and Scylla
During the siege of Megara by Minos, King of Crete, Scylla, daughter of King Nisus, becomes infatuated with Minos. She cuts the purple lock of hair that protects her father's city, betraying her father and country. Minos rejects her in horror, and as his fleet departs, Scylla clings to his ship. Her father, transformed into a sea-eagle, attacks her, and she is changed into a bird, with the sea-eagle forever pursuing her.
Chapter 32
Echo and Narcissus
The chapter recounts the myth of Echo, a nymph cursed by Juno to only repeat the last words of others, and her unrequited love for Narcissus, a beautiful youth who cruelly rejects her. Narcissus then falls in love with his own reflection in a fountain, pines away, and transforms into the narcissus flower. The chapter also includes poetic allusions by Milton, Goldsmith, and Cowper.
Chapter 33
Clytie
Clytie, a water-nymph, pines away from unrequited love for Apollo, sitting on the cold ground for nine days without food or drink, her gaze fixed on the sun. She eventually transforms into a flower that constantly turns to face the sun, symbolizing constancy.
Chapter 34
Hero and Leander
Leander, a youth of Abydos, swims nightly across the Hellespont to be with Hero, a priestess of Venus in Sestos, guided by her torch. One stormy night he drowns, and Hero, upon discovering his body, casts herself from the tower into the sea. The chapter includes a sonnet by Keats and an allusion by Byron, noting that Lord Byron later proved the swim possible.
Chapter 35
XIV: Minerva—Niobe
This chapter recounts the myths of Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, and the tragic stories of Arachne and Niobe. Minerva, born from Jupiter's brain, presides over arts and defensive war, winning Athens by producing the olive tree. Arachne, a mortal weaver, challenges Minerva to a contest and, after weaving scenes of the gods' misdeeds, is transformed into a spider. Niobe, proud of her seven sons and seven daughters, boasts over Latona and is punished by Apollo and Diana, who kill all her children, turning her into a weeping stone. The chapter also includes poetic and artistic references to these myths.
Chapter 36
Minerva
The chapter recounts the contest between Minerva, goddess of wisdom, and the mortal Arachne, a skilled weaver who boasts that her craft surpasses even the goddess's. Disguised as an old woman, Minerva warns Arachne against hubris, but Arachne persists. In the weaving contest, Minerva depicts her victory over Neptune and scenes of divine punishment for mortals who challenge the gods, while Arachne weaves tales of the gods' own transgressions. Enraged, Minerva tears Arachne's work and transforms her into a spider, condemning her and her descendants to hang and spin forever. The chapter also includes poetic allusions by Spenser, Garrick, and Tennyson.
Chapter 37
Niobe
Niobe, queen of Thebes, proud of her seven sons and seven daughters, mocks the goddess Latona for having only two children, Apollo and Diana, and forbids the people from worshiping her. In revenge, Apollo and Diana slay all of Niobe's children with arrows. Her husband Amphion kills himself in grief. Niobe, desolate, is turned to stone by the gods, yet continues to weep eternally. The chapter also references Byron's use of the Niobe myth to describe fallen Rome and a famous statue group in Florence.
Chapter 38
XV: The Graeae or Gray-Maids—Perseus—Medusa—Atlas—Andromeda
This chapter recounts the myth of Perseus, son of Jupiter and Danaë, who is sent to slay the Gorgon Medusa. With aid from Minerva and Mercury, he beheads Medusa while she sleeps. Later, he turns Atlas to stone using Medusa's head, rescues Andromeda from a sea-monster, and defeats the jealous suitor Phineus at the wedding feast, turning him and his followers to stone.
Chapter 39
The Graeae and the Gorgons
This chapter introduces the Graeae, three gray-haired sisters, and the Gorgons, monstrous females with swine-like teeth, brazen claws, and snaky hair. It focuses on Medusa, the most famous Gorgon, and presents a modern theory that the Gorgons and Graeae personify the terrors of the sea—the Gorgons representing strong billows and the Graeae white-crested waves.
Chapter 40
Perseus and Medusa
Perseus, son of Jupiter and Danaë, is set adrift with his mother by his grandfather Acrisius due to a prophecy. They are rescued by King Polydectes, who later sends Perseus to slay Medusa, a once-beautiful maiden turned into a serpent-haired monster by Minerva. With help from Minerva and Mercury, Perseus beheads Medusa while using a reflective shield to avoid her petrifying gaze, and later gives the head to Minerva for her Aegis.
Chapter 41
Perseus and Atlas
Perseus, after slaying Medusa, seeks rest in the realm of King Atlas, but Atlas, fearing a prophecy that a son of Jove would steal his golden apples, refuses him. Perseus then uses the Gorgon's head to turn Atlas into a mountain, which now holds up the heavens.
Chapter 42
The Sea-Monster
Perseus, flying over Aethiopia, sees Andromeda chained to a rock as a sacrifice to a sea-monster, sent because her mother Cassiopeia boasted she was more beautiful than the Sea-Nymphs. Perseus rescues her by slaying the monster, wins her as his bride, and Cassiopeia is later placed among the stars as a constellation, but with her head downward as a lesson in humility.
Chapter 43
The Wedding Feast
Perseus and Andromeda celebrate their wedding with a feast, but Phineus, Andromeda's former betrothed, bursts in with armed followers demanding her. After Cepheus's failed remonstrations, a battle ensues. Perseus uses the Gorgon's head to turn his enemies to stone, including Phineus, who is spared but petrified as a lasting memorial.
Chapter 44
Monsters
This chapter catalogs various mythological monsters, including the Sphinx, the Chimaera, the Centaurs, the Pygmies, and the Griffin. It recounts the tragic story of Oedipus and the Sphinx, the tale of Bellerophon and the winged horse Pegasus defeating the Chimaera, the nature and exploits of the Centaurs (including the wise Chiron), and descriptions of the Pygmies and the Griffin.
Chapter 45
Giants, Sphinx, Pegasus and Chimaera, Centaurs, Griffin, and Pygmies
This chapter catalogs various mythological monsters, describing their unnatural proportions, hybrid forms, and the terror they inspired. It distinguishes between human-like giants such as Cyclopes and Antaeus, who interacted with mortals, and superhuman giants like Tityus and Enceladus who warred with the gods. The narrative recounts the giants' rebellion, their temporary routing of the gods into Egypt (where the gods assumed animal forms), and their eventual defeat by Jupiter's thunderbolts, forged by the Cyclopes under Minerva's instruction.
Chapter 46
The Sphinx
Laius, king of Thebes, orders his newborn son killed to avoid a prophecy, but the child is rescued and raised as Oedipus. Years later, Oedipus unknowingly kills his father Laius on the road. He then solves the riddle of the Sphinx, saving Thebes, and becomes king, marrying his mother Jocasta. When the truth is revealed, Jocasta commits suicide and Oedipus blinds himself and wanders into exile.
Chapter 47
Pegasus and the Chimaera
The chapter recounts the myth of Bellerophon, who, after being sent to his death by King Iobates via a letter from Proetus, is tasked with slaying the fire-breathing Chimaera. With the help of the winged horse Pegasus, tamed by Minerva and given a golden bridle, Bellerophon defeats the monster and later triumphs over further trials, eventually marrying the king's daughter. However, his pride leads to his downfall when he attempts to fly to heaven, causing Jupiter to send a gadfly that stings Pegasus, throwing Bellerophon to wander blind and lame. The chapter also includes poetic references to Pegasus by Milton, Young, Schiller, and Shakespeare.
Chapter 48
The Centaurs
This chapter describes the Centaurs as mythical beings with the upper body of a man and the lower body of a horse, noting that they were among the few monsters of antiquity attributed with good traits. It recounts the battle of the Lapithae and Centaurs at the wedding of Pirithous and Hippodamia, where the Centaur Eurytion's drunken assault on the bride sparked a violent conflict. The chapter also highlights the wise Centaur Chiron, tutored by Apollo and Diana, who taught many Greek heroes and raised Aesculapius, whose later success in restoring the dead to life led to his death by Jupiter's lightning and subsequent deification.
Chapter 49
The Pygmies
This chapter describes the Pygmies, a mythical nation of dwarfs about thirteen inches tall, who lived near the Nile's sources or in India. It recounts their annual war with migrating cranes and their futile attack on the sleeping Hercules, who captured some of them. The chapter concludes with Milton's simile comparing fallen angels to Pygmies.
Chapter 50
The Griffin, or Gryphon
This chapter describes the Griffin, a mythical creature with the body of a lion and the head and wings of an eagle, known for nesting in mountains of gold in India and guarding treasures from the one-eyed Arimaspians. It includes a simile from Milton's Paradise Lost.
Chapter 51
The Golden Fleece—Medea
Jason, with the help of Medea, the sorceress daughter of King Aeëtes, successfully yokes fire-breathing bulls, sows dragon's teeth that spawn armed men, and lulls the guardian dragon to sleep to seize the Golden Fleece. He flees with Medea and the Argonauts back to Thessaly, delivering the fleece to Pelias. The chapter also recounts the origin of the fleece, the construction of the Argo, and the perilous journey through the Clashing Islands.
Chapter 52
The Golden Fleece
The chapter recounts the myth of the Golden Fleece, beginning with King Athamas and Queen Nephele, their children Phryxus and Helle, and the ram with the golden fleece that carries Phryxus to Colchis. It then follows Jason, who, after being denied his throne by his uncle Pelias, undertakes the quest for the fleece. With the help of the Argonauts—including Hercules, Orpheus, and Theseus—and the sorceress Medea, Jason overcomes the trials set by King Aeëtes: yoking fire-breathing bulls, sowing dragon's teeth that spawn armed warriors, and lulling the guardian dragon to sleep. He seizes the fleece and returns to Thessaly, dedicating the Argo to Neptune.
Chapter 53
Medea and Aeson
Medea uses her sorcery to rejuvenate Jason's aged father Aeson, but later deceives the daughters of Pelias into murdering their own father. After Jason abandons her for Creusa, Medea exacts a terrible revenge by sending a poisoned robe to the bride, killing her own children, and fleeing to Athens.
Chapter 54
Meleager and Atalanta
The chapter recounts the myth of Meleager, whose life is tied to a brand saved by his mother Althea. After Meleager slays the Calydonian boar and gives the trophy to Atalanta, his uncles' envy leads him to kill them. Althea, torn between maternal love and vengeance, burns the brand, causing Meleager's death, then takes her own life. The second part tells of Atalanta, who imposes a deadly race on suitors. Hippomenes, aided by Venus's golden apples, wins the race and her hand, but their ingratitude to Venus results in their transformation into lions yoked to Cybele's chariot.
Chapter 55
Atalanta
Atalanta, a maiden who fled from marriage due to a prophecy, challenges suitors to a race where losers face death. Hippomenes, aided by Venus's golden apples, wins the race and marries her. Their ingratitude to Venus leads to their transformation into lions by Cybele.
Chapter 56
XIX: Hercules—Hebe and Ganymede
This chapter recounts the life and labors of Hercules, son of Jupiter and Alcmena, from his miraculous infancy to his apotheosis. It details the Twelve Labors imposed by Eurystheus, including the Nemean lion, the Hydra, the Augean stables, the girdle of Hippolyta, the oxen of Geryon, the golden apples of the Hesperides, the victory over Antaeus, the slaying of Cacus, and the capture of Cerberus. It also covers his servitude to Omphale, his marriage to Dejanira, the fatal poisoning by the robe steeped in Nessus's blood, his death on Mount Oeta, and his ascent to Olympus where he marries Hebe. The chapter concludes with a brief mention of Hebe and Ganymede as cupbearers to the gods.
Chapter 57
Hercules
This chapter recounts the life and labors of Hercules, the son of Jupiter and Alcmena, from his miraculous infancy to his apotheosis. It details the Twelve Labors imposed by Eurystheus, including the Nemean lion, the Hydra, the Augean stables, the girdle of Hippolyta, the oxen of Geryon, the golden apples of the Hesperides, and the capture of Cerberus. It also covers his victory over Antaeus, the slaying of Cacus, his servitude to Omphale, his marriage to Dejanira, the fatal poisoning by the blood of Nessus, his self-immolation on Mount Oeta, and his eventual deification and marriage to Hebe.
Chapter 58
Hebe and Ganymede
This chapter recounts the myth of Hebe, goddess of youth and cupbearer to the gods, who either resigned her position upon marrying Hercules or was dismissed after a fall. Her successor was the Trojan boy Ganymede, whom Jupiter, disguised as an eagle, abducted from Mount Ida and brought to heaven. The chapter includes poetic references by Tennyson and Shelley.
Chapter 59
Theseus—Daedalus—Castor and Pollux
The chapter recounts the myth of Theseus, son of Aegeus, who proves his heroism by overcoming robbers like Periphetes and Procrustes, then volunteers as tribute to Crete to slay the Minotaur with Ariadne's help. After abandoning Ariadne, he returns to Athens but forgets to change his sails, causing his father's suicide. It also covers his exploits against the Amazons, his friendship with Pirithous, his marriage to Phaedra and the tragic fate of Hippolytus, and the story of Castor and Pollux, who share immortality alternately and are placed among the stars as Gemini.
Chapter 60
Theseus
The chapter recounts the life and adventures of Theseus, son of Aegeus, king of Athens. It describes his heroic journey from Troezen to Athens, where he defeats several villains including Procrustes, escapes poisoning by Medea, and is acknowledged as his father's successor. Theseus then volunteers as tribute to Crete, slays the Minotaur with Ariadne's help, but abandons her on Naxos. He forgets to change his ship's sails, causing his father's suicide, and becomes king. Further exploits include war with the Amazons, friendship with Pirithous, abduction of Helen, descent to the underworld, marriage to Phaedra, and the tragic death of his son Hippolytus. The chapter ends with Theseus's death and the institution of the Panathenaea festival.
Chapter 61
Olympic and Other Games
This chapter describes the major national games of ancient Greece, including the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean games. It details their origins, locations, frequency, and the types of athletic and artistic contests held, highlighting the cultural significance and the spread of fame for victors.
Chapter 62
Daedalus
Daedalus, the master craftsman who built the labyrinth for King Minos, is imprisoned with his son Icarus. To escape, he crafts wings from feathers and wax. Despite his warnings, Icarus flies too close to the sun, the wax melts, and he falls into the sea and drowns. Daedalus then reaches Sicily, where he dedicates his wings to Apollo. Later, out of envy for his nephew Perdix's inventive genius, Daedalus attempts to kill him, but Minerva transforms Perdix into a partridge.
Chapter 63
Castor and Pollux
The chapter recounts the myth of Castor and Pollux, the twin brothers born from Leda and Jupiter in swan form. It describes their rescue of their sister Helen, their skills in horsemanship and boxing, their role in the Argonautic expedition where stars appeared on their heads during a storm, and their subsequent status as patron deities of sailors. After Castor's death in battle, Pollux's plea to Jupiter led to the brothers sharing immortality alternately or being placed among the stars as Gemini. The chapter also notes their later appearances aiding Romans at the battle of Lake Regillus.
Chapter 64
Bacchus—Ariadne
This chapter recounts the birth and adventures of Bacchus, son of Jupiter and Semele, including his nurturing by nymphs, discovery of the vine, madness inflicted by Juno, and his triumphant journey to establish his worship in Greece. It details the punishment of the Tyrrhenian sailors who tried to kidnap him and the tragic fate of King Pentheus, who opposed his rites. The chapter also tells the story of Ariadne, abandoned by Theseus on Naxos, who is consoled by Bacchus and made his wife, with her crown becoming a constellation.
Chapter 65
Bacchus
The chapter recounts the birth of Bacchus, son of Jupiter and Semele, and Juno's vengeful plot that led to Semele's destruction. Bacchus is raised by nymphs, discovers the vine, and after being driven mad by Juno, spreads his worship across Asia and Greece. The narrative focuses on his confrontation with King Pentheus of Thebes, who opposes the Bacchic rites. Through the tale of the captured sailor Acetes, the chapter illustrates Bacchus's divine power as he transforms the treacherous crew into dolphins. Pentheus ignores warnings, goes to spy on the rites, and is torn to pieces by the frenzied Bacchanals, including his own mother Agave, establishing the worship of Bacchus in Greece.
Chapter 66
Ariadne
Ariadne, daughter of King Minos, helps Theseus escape the labyrinth but is abandoned by him on the island of Naxos. Venus consoles her with the promise of an immortal lover, and Bacchus finds her, makes her his wife, and gives her a golden crown. Upon her death, Bacchus places the crown in the sky as a constellation.
Chapter 67
The Rural Deities—Erisichthon—Rhoecus—The Water Deities—Camenae—Winds
This chapter describes various rural and water deities from classical mythology, including Pan, Sylvanus, Faunus, nymphs, and the gods of the sea such as Neptune, Amphitrite, Nereus, Triton, and Proteus. It recounts the cautionary tale of Erisichthon, who was punished by Ceres for cutting down a sacred oak, and the story of Rhoecus, who lost his sight for neglecting a Hamadryad's messenger. The chapter also covers the Camenae, including Egeria, and concludes with reflections on the passing of the old pagan gods.
Chapter 68
The Rural Deities
This chapter describes Pan, the god of woods and fields, his attributes, and his association with nature and music. It also covers other rural deities like Sylvanus and Faunus, various classes of nymphs (Naiads, Oreads, Nereids, Dryads), and the belief that wood-nymphs perish with their trees. The text reflects on the pagan tendency to personify natural phenomena and includes poetic reflections by Milton, Wordsworth, Schiller, and Mrs. E. Barrett Browning on the loss of such mythology with the rise of Christianity.
Chapter 69
Erisichthon
Erisichthon, a profane man, defiles a sacred grove of Ceres by cutting down a massive oak tree inhabited by a Dryad, despite warnings and a divine voice. In punishment, Ceres sends Famine to afflict him with insatiable hunger, which consumes his wealth and drives him to sell his daughter repeatedly. Through Neptune's aid, his daughter escapes each sale by shape-shifting, but Erisichthon's hunger ultimately drives him to devour his own body until death.
Chapter 70
Rhoecus
Rhoecus saves an oak tree from falling, earning the gratitude of the Hamadryad nymph who lives within it. He asks for her love, and she agrees on the condition that he remain faithful, with a bee as her messenger. When Rhoecus carelessly brushes the bee away, the nymph punishes him by taking his sight.
Chapter 71
The Water Deities
This chapter describes the Titans Oceanus and Tethys, who originally ruled the waters, and their replacement by Neptune and Amphitrite after Jove and his brothers overthrew the Titans.
Chapter 72
Neptune
This chapter introduces Neptune, the chief of the water deities, describing his symbols of power such as the trident, his creation of the horse, and his patronage of horse races. It depicts his chariot drawn by horses with brazen hoofs and golden manes, smoothing the sea as he travels.
Chapter 73
Amphitrite
Amphitrite, daughter of Nereus and Doris, becomes the wife of Neptune after he courts her while riding a dolphin. In gratitude, Neptune places the dolphin among the stars.
Chapter 74
Nereus and Doris
This chapter introduces Nereus and Doris as the parents of the Nereids, highlighting the most famous Nereids: Amphitrite, Thetis (mother of Achilles), and Galatea, who was loved by the Cyclops Polyphemus. Nereus is noted for his wisdom, truthfulness, justice, and prophetic abilities.
Chapter 75
Triton and Proteus
This chapter introduces Triton, the son of Neptune and Amphitrite, who serves as his father's trumpeter, and Proteus, another son of Neptune known for his wisdom, knowledge of the future, and ability to change his shape at will.
Chapter 76
Thetis
Thetis, a beautiful sea nymph and daughter of Nereus and Doris, was courted by Jupiter himself. However, a prophecy from Prometheus revealed that her son would surpass his father, so Jupiter arranged for her to marry a mortal, Peleus. With the help of Chiron the Centaur, Peleus won Thetis, and their son was the great hero Achilles. The chapter foreshadows Thetis' devoted role as a mother, aiding Achilles throughout the Trojan War.
Chapter 77
Leucothea and Palaemon
Ino, daughter of Cadmus and wife of Athamas, flees her maddened husband with her son Melicertes and leaps into the sea. The gods transform them into sea deities: Ino becomes Leucothea and Melicertes becomes Palaemon. They are invoked by sailors for protection from shipwreck, and Palaemon is honored with the Isthmian games. The chapter includes poetic references to these and other sea deities by Milton and Armstrong.
Chapter 78
The Camenae
This chapter introduces the Camenae, the Latin equivalent of the Muses, who include fountain nymphs such as Egeria. It recounts the legend of Egeria's secret meetings with King Numa, where she imparted wisdom and laws for his new nation, and her subsequent transformation into a fountain after his death. The chapter includes poetic references by Byron and Tennyson that evoke the mystical encounters between the mortal king and the divine nymph.
Chapter 79
The Winds
This chapter personifies the four winds—Boreas (Aquilo), Zephyrus (Favonius), Notus (Auster), and Eurus—focusing on the myths of Boreas and Orithyia, and Zephyrus and Flora, with poetic references from Milton and Dr. Young.
Chapter 80
XXIII: Achelous and Hercules—Admetus and Alcestis—Antigone—Penelope
The chapter recounts four mythological tales: the wrestling match between the river-god Achelous and Hercules for Dejanira, resulting in the origin of the Cornucopia; the story of Admetus and Alcestis, where Alcestis volunteers to die for her husband and is rescued by Hercules; the tragic fate of Antigone and her family, including the war of the Seven against Thebes; and the fidelity of Penelope awaiting Ulysses.
Chapter 81
Achelous and Hercules
The river-god Achelous, hosting Theseus and his companions, recounts his defeat by Hercules in a struggle for Dejanira. He describes transforming into a serpent and a bull, but Hercules overpowered him and tore off his horn, which became the Cornucopia. The chapter also explains the allegorical interpretation of the myth and provides an alternative origin of the Cornucopia involving Jupiter and the goat Amalthea.
Chapter 82
Admetus and Alcestis
Apollo, after being condemned to serve a mortal for killing the Cyclopes, becomes the herdsman of King Admetus and helps him win Alcestis. When Admetus falls ill, the Fates agree to spare him if someone dies in his stead; Alcestis volunteers. Hercules intervenes, seizes Death, and restores Alcestis to life.
Chapter 83
Antigone
This chapter recounts the tragic story of Antigone, daughter of Oedipus and Jocasta, who exemplifies filial and sisterly devotion. After Oedipus's death, her brothers Eteocles and Polynices quarrel over the throne of Thebes, leading to the expedition of the Seven against Thebes. Both brothers die in single combat. Creon, the new king, honors Eteocles with burial but forbids the burial of Polynices. Antigone defies the edict and buries her brother, for which she is sentenced to be buried alive. Her lover Haemon, Creon's son, commits suicide in despair. The chapter also includes the stories of Amphiaraus, Eriphyle, Evadne, and Tiresias, and notes that Antigone is the subject of two tragedies by Sophocles.
Chapter 84
Penelope
This chapter recounts the story of Penelope, the wife of Ulysses, celebrated for her fidelity and cleverness. It describes her marriage to Ulysses, her choice to remain loyal to him, and her cunning strategy of weaving and unweaving a shroud to delay remarrying the suitors who besieged her during his long absence at the Trojan War.
Chapter 85
Orpheus and Eurydice—Aristaeus—Amphion—Linus—Thamyris—Marsyas—Melampus—Musaeus
This chapter recounts the tragic love story of Orpheus and Eurydice, where Orpheus descends to the underworld to retrieve his wife after her death from a snakebite. He charms Pluto and Proserpine with his music, but loses Eurydice forever when he looks back before reaching the upper world. The chapter also covers the story of Aristaeus, who loses his bees and is instructed to appease the nymphs and the shades of Orpheus and Eurydice, resulting in a new swarm of bees. Additional mythical poets and musicians are introduced: Amphion, who built Thebes' walls with his lyre; Linus, Hercules' music teacher killed by his pupil; Thamyris, who challenged the Muses and was blinded; Marsyas, who challenged Apollo and was flayed; Melampus, who gained prophetic powers from serpents; and Musaeus, a semi-mythological poet and son of Orpheus.
Chapter 86
Orpheus and Eurydice
Orpheus, son of Apollo and Calliope, marries Eurydice, who dies from a snakebite. He descends to the underworld to retrieve her, charming Pluto and Proserpine with his music. They allow Eurydice to return on condition that Orpheus not look back until they reach the upper world. He fails, losing her forever. Orpheus spurns women afterward and is killed by Thracian maenads. His shade reunites with Eurydice in the underworld.
Chapter 87
Aristaeus, the Beekeeper
Aristaeus, son of the water-nymph Cyrene, loses his bees and seeks his mother's aid. She instructs him to capture the sea-prophet Proteus, who reveals that the bees died as punishment for causing Eurydice's death. Aristaeus must sacrifice bulls and cows to appease the nymphs and honor Orpheus and Eurydice. He obeys, and after nine days finds a new swarm of bees born from the carcasses.
Chapter 88
Amphion
Amphion, son of Jupiter and Antiope, and his twin brother Zethus are exposed at birth and raised by shepherds. Mercury gives Amphion a lyre. Their mother Antiope, abused by King Lycus and Dirce, summons her sons, who kill Lycus and have Dirce dragged to death by a bull. Amphion becomes king of Thebes and fortifies the city with a wall, the stones moving into place as he plays his lyre.
Chapter 89
Linus
Linus, the music instructor of Hercules, is killed by his pupil after a harsh reprimand.
Chapter 90
Thamyris
Thamyris, an ancient Thracian bard, presumptuously challenged the Muses to a contest of skill. After being defeated, the Muses punished him by taking away his sight. Milton references Thamyris among other blind bards when reflecting on his own blindness in Paradise Lost, Book III.
Chapter 91
Marsyas
Minerva invents the flute but discards it after Cupid mocks her appearance while playing. Marsyas finds the flute and becomes so skilled that he challenges Apollo to a musical contest. Apollo wins and punishes Marsyas by flaying him alive.
Chapter 92
Melampus
Melampus, the first mortal with prophetic powers, gains the ability to understand the language of animals after serpents lick his ears. He uses this gift to foretell events and, while imprisoned, learns from woodworms that the roof will collapse, saving himself and his captors.
Chapter 93
Musaeus
This chapter introduces Musaeus, a semi-mythological figure often considered the son of Orpheus, known for composing sacred poems and oracles. Milton references him alongside Orpheus in 'Il Penseroso,' invoking their power to move even the underworld.
Chapter 94
Arion—Ibycus—Simonides—Sappho
This chapter recounts the legendary adventures of several ancient Greek poets: Arion, who escapes death at sea by leaping overboard and being rescued by dolphins; Ibycus, whose murder is revealed by cranes at a theatrical festival; Simonides, who survives a banquet collapse after being called away by Castor and Pollux; and Sappho, the famed poetess of Lesbos. The stories emphasize the power of poetry, divine justice, and the protection of the gods over pious bards.
Chapter 95
Arion
Arion, a famous musician and favorite of King Periander of Corinth, wins a musical contest in Sicily but is threatened by sailors who plot to kill him for his treasure. He requests to sing a final song, then leaps into the sea, where a dolphin rescues him and carries him to shore. He returns to Periander, who helps expose the criminals, and the sailors are banished.
Chapter 96
Ibycus
The pious poet Ibycus, on his way to the Isthmian games, is murdered by two robbers in a sacred grove. With his dying breath, he calls upon a flock of cranes to avenge him. Later, at the theatre, the performance of the Furies terrifies the crowd, and the murderers, overcome by guilt, cry out at the sight of cranes overhead, revealing their crime and leading to their capture and punishment.
Chapter 97
Simonides
The chapter recounts the story of the Greek poet Simonides, known for his elegies and hymns, and his narrow escape from death at the court of King Scopas. After composing a poem that included praise of Castor and Pollux alongside Scopas, the king paid him only half the promised reward, jesting that the twin gods would pay the rest. Simonides was later called outside by two young men on horseback—whom he recognized as Castor and Pollux—and moments later the roof of the banqueting hall collapsed, killing Scopas and all his guests.
Chapter 98
Sappho
This chapter introduces Sappho, a poetess of early Greek literature, known for her passionate love for the youth Phaon. Unrequited, she leaps from the promontory of Leucadia into the sea, a 'Lover's-leap' believed to cure love. The chapter references Byron's 'Childe Harold' and suggests further reading in the Spectator and Moore's works.
Chapter 99
Endymion—Orion—Aurora and Tithonus—Acis and Galatea
This chapter recounts several myths of love, loss, and transformation: the story of Endymion, the beautiful youth loved by Diana and granted eternal sleep; Orion, the giant hunter blinded by Oenopion, restored by the sun, and accidentally killed by Diana; the Pleiads, nymphs transformed into stars to escape Orion's pursuit; Aurora and Tithonus, where the goddess of dawn gains immortality for her lover but forgets youth, leading to his decrepitude and transformation into a grasshopper; and Acis and Galatea, where the Cyclops Polyphemus kills Acis out of jealousy, and Galatea transforms him into a river.
Chapter 100
Diana and Endymion
The chapter recounts the myth of Endymion, a beautiful youth whom Diana, the moon goddess, loved and watched over as he slept. It explores interpretations of the story as a metaphor for poetic longing, dreamy life, and early death, with references to Keats, Young, and Fletcher.
Chapter 101
Orion
Orion, son of Neptune, is a handsome giant and mighty hunter who loves Merope but is blinded by her father Oenopion after attempting to take her by force. Guided by Vulcan's servant Kedalion, Orion regains his sight from the sun-god. He becomes a hunter and favorite of Diana, but Apollo tricks Diana into shooting him. Diana places Orion among the stars, along with his dog Sirius and the fleeing Pleiads, who were turned into pigeons and then a constellation by Jupiter.
Chapter 102
Aurora and Tithonus
The goddess of the Dawn, Aurora, falls in love with the mortal Tithonus, son of King Laomedon of Troy. She obtains immortality for him from Jupiter but forgets to request eternal youth, leading to his gradual aging and eventual transformation into a grasshopper. Their son Memnon, king of the Aethiopians, comes to aid Troy in the Trojan War but is slain by Achilles. Aurora mourns him inconsolably, and Jupiter turns the embers of his funeral pyre into birds that annually reenact his obsequies. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the vocal statue of Memnon in Egypt, a subject of poetic allusion.
Chapter 103
Acis and Galatea
Galatea tells Scylla the story of her love for Acis and the unwanted advances of the Cyclops Polyphemus. Polyphemus, transformed by love, tries to win Galatea, but when he discovers her with Acis, he kills Acis by hurling a rock. Galatea then transforms Acis into a river.
Chapter 104
XXVII: The Trojan War
This chapter recounts the origins and key events of the Trojan War, beginning with the Judgment of Paris and the abduction of Helen. It details the Greek armament, the quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon, the withdrawal of Achilles, the death of Patroclus, the forging of new armor for Achilles by Vulcan, and the final confrontation between Achilles and Hector.
Chapter 105
The Iliad
The chapter recounts the events of Homer's Iliad, focusing on the quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon over the captive maidens Chryseis and Briseis, which leads Achilles to withdraw from the Trojan War. The Greeks suffer defeats until Patroclus, wearing Achilles' armor, is killed by Hector. Achilles, grief-stricken and vengeful, returns to battle, slays Hector, and drags his body. Eventually, moved by King Priam's plea, he returns Hector's body for proper funeral rites.
Chapter 106
The Fall of Troy—Return of the Greeks—Orestes and Electra
This chapter recounts the final events of the Trojan War, including the deaths of Achilles, Ajax, and Paris, the stratagem of the wooden horse, and the fall of Troy. It then follows the returns of Menelaus and Helen to Sparta, and the tragic homecoming of Agamemnon, who is murdered by his wife Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus. The chapter concludes with the story of Orestes and Electra: Orestes avenges his father's death by slaying his mother and Aegisthus, is pursued by the Furies, and ultimately acquitted by Athena's court.
Chapter 107
The Fall of Troy
The chapter recounts the final events of the Trojan War after Hector's death, including the arrival of allies Memnon and Penthesilea, the death of Achilles by Paris's arrow, the suicide of Ajax, the retrieval of Philoctetes and the arrows of Hercules, the theft of the Palladium, the construction of the Trojan Horse, the death of Laocoön and his sons, and the final sack of Troy, with the fates of Priam, Hecuba, Cassandra, and Polyxena.
Chapter 108
Menelaus and Helen
The chapter recounts the fate of Helen after the fall of Troy, her reconciliation with Menelaus, their stormy journey through the Mediterranean, their kind reception in Egypt, and their eventual return to Sparta where they reign in splendor and celebrate their daughter's marriage.
Chapter 109
Agamemnon, Orestes, and Electra
The chapter recounts the tragic story of the House of Atreus: Agamemnon's murder by his wife Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus upon his return from Troy, the rescue of his son Orestes by his sister Electra, Orestes' vengeful slaying of his mother and her paramour, his subsequent persecution by the Furies, and his eventual purification and acquittal through the intervention of Apollo and Minerva. It also includes the recognition scene between Orestes and Electra, and the later adventure in Tauris where Orestes and his friend Pylades are saved by their sister Iphigenia.
Chapter 110
Troy
This chapter discusses the historical uncertainty surrounding the city of Troy, focusing on the archaeological excavations conducted by Henry Schliemann in the late 19th century at Hissarlik. Schliemann uncovered multiple layers of settlements and claimed to have found 'Priam's Treasure,' though scholars remain divided on the historical significance of these discoveries.
Chapter 111
Adventures of Ulysses—The Lotus-Eaters—Cyclopes—Circe—Sirens—Scylla and Charybdis—Calypso
This chapter recounts the wanderings of Ulysses (Odysseus) after the Trojan War, including his encounters with the Lotus-Eaters, the Cyclops Polyphemus, the enchantress Circe, the Sirens, the monsters Scylla and Charybdis, and the nymph Calypso. It details his cunning escape from Polyphemus, the disastrous opening of Aeolus's wind bag, the crew's fatal slaughter of the Sun's cattle, and his eventual shipwreck and stay with Calypso, who reluctantly helps him continue his journey home.
Chapter 112
Return of Ulysses
The chapter recounts the adventures of Ulysses (Odysseus) as he attempts to return from Troy to his kingdom of Ithaca. It details his encounters with the Lotus-eaters, the Cyclops Polyphemus, and the island of Aeolus, highlighting the cunning and bravery of Ulysses as well as the folly of his crew.
Chapter 113
The Laestrygonians
Ulysses and his crew encounter the barbarous Laestrygonians, who destroy all but Ulysses' ship. They then arrive at Circe's island, where she transforms half the crew into swine. With Mercury's help, Ulysses resists Circe's magic, forces her to restore his men, and they are entertained before continuing their journey past the Sirens.
Chapter 114
Scylla and Charybdis
Ulysses, warned by Circe, navigates the perilous strait between the monsters Scylla and Charybdis. Scylla seizes six of his men, and later, despite his oath, his crew slaughters the sacred cattle of the Sun on Thrinakia, leading to a storm that destroys the ship and kills all but Ulysses, who escapes to Calypso's island.
Chapter 115
Calypso
Calypso, a sea-nymph, hospitably receives Ulysses and falls in love with him, offering him immortality if he stays. Ulysses insists on returning to his wife and son. Jove commands Calypso to release him, and Mercury delivers the message. Calypso reluctantly helps Ulysses build a raft and sends him off. Later, in Fenelon's romance, Telemachus visits Calypso's isle seeking his father, and with Minerva's guidance, resists her allurements, leaping into the sea to escape.
Chapter 116
The Phaeacians—Fate of the Suitors
Ulysses, shipwrecked and naked, encounters Princess Nausicaa, who provides him with clothing and directs him to her father King Alcinoüs's palace. Guided by Minerva, he enters the splendid Phaeacian court, where he is welcomed, entertained with games and a bard's song, and reveals his identity. The Phaeacians load him with gifts and sail him to Ithaca while he sleeps. Meanwhile, Ulysses learns from Minerva of the suitors besieging his palace and plotting against his son Telemachus. Disguised as a beggar, he reunites with Telemachus and they plan vengeance.
Chapter 117
The Phaeacians
Ulysses, shipwrecked and alone, is discovered by Princess Nausicaa and her maidens. Guided by Minerva, he gains the hospitality of King Alcinoüs and Queen Arete of the Phaeacians. After participating in games and hearing the bard Demodocus sing of Troy, Ulysses reveals his identity and recounts his adventures. The Phaeacians load him with gifts and convey him safely to Ithaca, but Neptune punishes them by turning their returning ship to stone.
Chapter 118
Fate of the Suitors
Ulysses returns to Ithaca after twenty years, disguised as a beggar by Minerva. He reunites with his son Telemachus and devises a plan to rid his palace of the suitors who have been vying for Penelope's hand. After a trial of archery, Ulysses reveals himself and, with Telemachus and loyal servants, slays all the suitors, reclaiming his kingdom and wife.
Chapter 119
Adventures of Aeneas—The Harpies—Dido—Palinurus
This chapter follows Aeneas and the Trojan exiles as they flee Troy after its fall, seeking a new homeland. They encounter various trials, including a cursed land in Thrace, an ambiguous oracle at Delos, a failed settlement in Crete, and an attack by the Harpies. After being hosted by Andromache and Helenus in Epirus, they narrowly escape the Cyclops Polyphemus, survive a storm stirred by Juno and calmed by Neptune, and finally land in Italy. There, Aeneas seeks the Sibyl's aid to descend to the underworld to consult his father Anchises, first obtaining the golden bough as a gift for Proserpine.
Chapter 120
Adventures of Aeneas
Aeneas escapes Troy with his father and son, loses his wife, and leads a fleet of Trojan refugees on a quest to find a new homeland. After consulting the oracle of Apollo and mistakenly attempting to settle in Crete, they are redirected to Italy. Along the way, they encounter the Harpies, Polyphemus the Cyclops, and a storm raised by Juno, which Neptune calms, driving them to the coast of Carthage.
Chapter 121
Dido
Aeneas and his Trojan exiles arrive at Carthage, where Queen Dido, a Tyrian refugee herself, welcomes them with hospitality. Dido falls deeply in love with Aeneas, and he seems content to remain with her, forgetting his destiny to found Rome. Jupiter sends Mercury to remind Aeneas of his mission, and he departs. Dido, heartbroken and dishonored, builds a funeral pyre and stabs herself, dying in the flames.
Chapter 122
Palinurus
The Trojans, after a hospitable stop in Sicily, set sail for Italy. Venus intercedes with Neptune, who grants safe passage for Aeneas in exchange for one life. The pilot Palinurus is lulled to sleep by Somnus and cast overboard, but Neptune guides the ship safely. Upon reaching Italy, Aeneas seeks the Sibyl, who prophesies his trials and instructs him to retrieve the golden branch from the forest to gain entry to the underworld. With Venus's doves, Aeneas finds the branch and returns to the Sibyl.
Chapter 123
XXXII: The Infernal Regions—The Sibyl
Aeneas, guided by the Sibyl, descends into the underworld through a volcanic region near Vesuvius. They pass by various monsters and the river Cocytus, where Charon ferries souls. After encountering the unburied dead, including his pilot Palinurus, Aeneas is ferried across after showing the golden branch. They pass Cerberus and enter Tartarus, where they witness the punishments of Tityus, Tantalus, Sisyphus, and others. The Sibyl then leads Aeneas to the Elysian fields, where he meets his father Anchises, who shows him the souls destined for rebirth and the future of Rome. The chapter concludes with the Sibyl's story of her own mortality and her prophetic powers.
Chapter 124
The Infernal Regions
Aeneas, guided by the Sibyl, descends into the underworld. They cross the river Styx with Charon, pass Cerberus, and witness the various punishments of the damned, including those who died by their own hand, victims of unrequited love, and legendary figures like Tityus, Ixion, Sisyphus, and Tantalus. Aeneas encounters the shade of Dido and speaks with fallen heroes. Finally, they enter the Elysian fields, where Aeneas meets his father Anchises, who reveals the souls awaiting rebirth and the future glory of Rome.
Chapter 125
Elysium
This chapter explores the concept of Elysium across different classical authors. In Virgil, Elysium is an underworld paradise for blessed spirits. Homer places it on the western edge of the world, near Ocean, as a land of eternal spring for favored heroes. Hesiod and Pindar locate it in the Isles of the Blessed or Fortunate Islands in the Western Ocean, possibly inspiring the Atlantis legend. The chapter also includes poetic references by J. R. Lowell and John Milton that evoke the imagery of these happy realms.
Chapter 126
The Sibyl
Aeneas and the Sibyl return to earth, where the Sibyl reveals her mortal nature and her tragic story: she was offered immortality by Apollo in exchange for her love, but she refused and instead asked for as many birthdays as grains of sand in her hand, forgetting to ask for eternal youth. She has lived seven hundred years and will live three hundred more, but her body shrinks with age until only her voice remains. The chapter also recounts the legend of the Cumaean Sibyl selling nine prophetic books to King Tarquin, which after being partially burned were purchased at a high price and kept as Roman state oracles.
Chapter 127
Camilla—Evander—Nisus and Euryalus—Mezentius—Turnus
Aeneas arrives at the Tiber's mouth, the destined end of his wanderings. King Latinus, warned by an oracle that his daughter Lavinia should marry a foreigner, welcomes the Trojans. Juno, enraged, sends Alecto to stir up war: the queen Amata opposes the alliance, Turnus is incited, and a hunting accident involving Iulus and a tame stag ignites conflict. The gates of Janus are burst open by Juno, and war erupts. Aeneas allies with King Evander, who recounts the early history of Rome and proposes an alliance with the Etruscans against Mezentius and Turnus. The episode of Nisus and Euryalus tells of their doomed night raid into the Rutulian camp. Mezentius is wounded by Aeneas but his son Lausus dies defending him; Mezentius later returns and is slain. Camilla, a warrior huntress, joins Turnus's forces.
Chapter 128
Opening the Gates of Janus
The chapter describes the Roman custom of opening the temple of Janus to declare war. The old king refuses to perform the ceremony, but Juno herself bursts open the doors, igniting a war frenzy. Turnus is recognized as leader, and allies including the cruel Mezentius and his noble son Lausus join the cause.
Chapter 129
Camilla
Camilla, a huntress and warrior favored by Diana, joins Turnus's side with her band of mounted followers. Her history is recounted: her father Metabus, fleeing civil discord, ties her to a lance and hurls her across the swollen river Amazenus, consecrating her to Diana. He then swims across, raises her among shepherds, and trains her in woodland arts. She remains devoted to Diana, rejecting marriage.
Chapter 130
Evander
Aeneas receives a vision from the river god Tiber, who instructs him to seek an alliance with Evander, the Arcadian chief at odds with Turnus. Aeneas follows the divine guidance, sails up the Tiber, and is welcomed by Evander and his son Pallas during a festival honoring Hercules.
Chapter 131
Infant Rome
King Evander, an exile from Arcadia, welcomes Aeneas and recounts the early history of the site that will become Rome, from the golden age of Saturn to the tyranny of Mezentius. He proposes an alliance with the Etruscans, who have rejected their cruel king Mezentius and seek a foreign leader. Evander offers his son Pallas to accompany Aeneas, who then rides to the Etruscan camp to assume command.
Chapter 132
Nisus and Euryalus
During the absence of Aeneas, Turnus and his Rutulian forces attempt to surprise the Trojan camp. The Trojans, under strict orders not to engage, remain within their fortifications. As night falls, the Rutulians feast and sleep in false security. Nisus and Euryalus, two Trojan friends, volunteer to sneak through the enemy lines to deliver a message to Aeneas. They successfully pass through the sleeping camp, but Euryalus's capture of a glittering helmet draws the attention of a returning troop led by Volscens. In the ensuing chase, Nisus escapes but returns to find Euryalus captured. After a desperate rescue attempt, both are killed.
Chapter 133
Mezentius
Aeneas and his Etrurian allies arrive to rescue their camp, leading to a full-scale war. The tyrant Mezentius fights fiercely, killing many, but is wounded by Aeneas. His son Lausus intervenes and is slain by Aeneas, who honors his body. Mezentius, upon learning of his son's death, rides into battle seeking revenge, but is ultimately killed by Aeneas, asking only that his body be buried with his son.
Chapter 134
Pallas, Camilla, Turnus
The chapter recounts the final conflicts of the Aeneid: Turnus slays the young Pallas in battle and takes his belt as a trophy; after a truce for burial, Camilla the virgin warrior is killed by Aruns, though Diana avenges her; finally, Aeneas defeats Turnus in single combat, and upon seeing Pallas's belt, kills him despite his plea for mercy. The narrative concludes with the founding of Lavinium and the lineage leading to Rome.
Chapter 135
XXXIV: Pythagoras—Egyptian Deities—Oracles
This chapter explores the philosophical and religious beliefs of the ancient world, beginning with the teachings of Pythagoras, including his doctrines of numbers, harmony, and the transmigration of souls. It then describes the Egyptian pantheon, focusing on the myth of Osiris and Isis, the worship of Apis, and the nature of oracles, particularly the oracle of Jupiter at Dodona.
Chapter 136
Pythagoras
This chapter explores the life and teachings of Pythagoras, the ancient Greek philosopher born on Samos who later established a school at Crotona in Italy. It details his travels to Egypt and the East, his founding of a disciplined society of disciples, and his core doctrines: numbers as the essence of all things, the immortality and transmigration of souls (metempsychosis), the harmony of the spheres, and the musical ratios underlying the cosmos. The chapter also includes literary allusions to Pythagoras by Shakespeare, Dryden, Milton, and Longfellow.
Chapter 137
Sybaris and Crotona
This chapter contrasts the luxurious and effeminate city of Sybaris with the disciplined and strong city of Crotona. A war erupts between them, resulting in Sybaris's destruction, led by the famed athlete Milo. The chapter recounts Milo's legendary strength and his tragic death when his hands become trapped in a split tree trunk, leading to his being devoured by wolves.
Chapter 138
Egyptian Deities
This chapter introduces the principal Egyptian deities, beginning with Amun (later identified with Zeus or Jupiter Ammon), who manifests through his word or will to create Kneph and Athor. From them proceed Osiris and Isis, with Osiris worshipped as the sun god and god of the Nile, annually visiting Isis (the Earth) through inundation. The chapter also describes Serapis or Hermes as a ruler of Tartarus and god of medicine, Anubis as the guardian god with a dog's head, and Horus (Harpocrates) as the god of Silence, seated on a lotus with his finger on his lips.
Chapter 139
Myth of Osiris and Isis
Osiris and Isis descend to earth to bestow gifts on humanity, including agriculture, laws, marriage, and worship. Osiris travels to spread blessings, but his brother Typhon, envious, conspires to kill him by trapping him in a chest and throwing it into the Nile. Isis mourns and searches for his body, eventually finding it encased in a tree at Byblos. She retrieves the coffin, but Typhon later discovers it, cuts Osiris's body into fourteen pieces, and scatters them. Isis recovers thirteen pieces and buries them at Philae, which becomes a sacred site. Osiris becomes the tutelary deity of Egypt, his soul inhabiting the bull Apis, who is worshipped with great ceremony until his death or ritual drowning at age twenty-five.
Chapter 140
Oracles
This chapter describes the nature and origins of oracles in ancient Greece, focusing on the oracle of Jupiter at Dodona and the more famous oracle of Apollo at Delphi. It explains how the oracles were established, the methods of divination (rustling oak branches at Dodona, intoxicating vapors at Delphi), and the role of the Pythia priestess.
Chapter 141
Oracle of Trophonius
This chapter describes the oracle of Trophonius in Boeotia, its origin story involving the brothers Trophonius and Agamedes, and the peculiar rituals required to consult it, including the proverb about gloominess.
Chapter 142
Oracle of Aesculapius
This chapter describes the oracles of Aesculapius, particularly the celebrated one at Epidaurus, where the sick sought healing through sleep in the temple, a practice likened to Animal Magnetism or Mesmerism. Serpents, sacred to Aesculapius due to their perceived ability to renew youth by shedding skin, are highlighted. The worship of Aesculapius was later introduced to Rome during a plague, when an embassy to Epidaurus resulted in the god accompanying the returning ship in the form of a serpent, which then took possession of an island in the Tiber, where a temple was erected.
Chapter 143
Oracle of Apis
This chapter discusses the Oracle of Apis at Memphis, where the sacred bull Apis gave responses based on whether he accepted or rejected food from inquirers. It explores various theories about the source of oracular responses—human contrivance, evil spirits, or mesmeric trance—and questions when pagan oracles ceased, with Christian writers claiming they fell silent at Christ's birth. The chapter includes poetic references by Milton, Cowper, Tennyson, and Byron that allude to oracles and mythological themes.
Chapter 144
Origin of Mythology—Statues of Gods and Goddesses—Poets of Mythology
This chapter explores the origins of pagan mythology through four main theories: Scriptural, Historical, Allegorical, and Physical. It then describes famous statues of the gods, including the Olympian Jupiter and the Minerva of the Parthenon by Phidias, and the Venus de Medici. Finally, it discusses the poets of mythology, with a focus on Ovid and his Metamorphoses.
Chapter 145
Origin of Mythology
This chapter explores the origins of pagan mythology, presenting and evaluating four main theories: the Scriptural theory (myths as disguised Bible narratives), the Historical theory (myths as embellished accounts of real people), the Allegorical theory (myths as symbolic truths later taken literally), and the Physical theory (myths as personifications of nature). It concludes that mythology likely arose from a combination of these sources, including the human desire to explain natural phenomena and the origins of names.
Chapter 146
Statues of the Gods
This chapter discusses the artistic challenge of representing deities through sculpture, highlighting four celebrated attempts—two known only through ancient descriptions and two surviving masterpieces of sculptural art.
Chapter 147
The Olympian Jupiter
This chapter describes the statue of the Olympian Jupiter by Phidias, a colossal chryselephantine sculpture of the supreme Greek deity seated on a throne, embodying majesty and conquest, inspired by Homer's Iliad.
Chapter 148
The Minerva of the Parthenon
This chapter describes the statue of Minerva created by Phidias for the Parthenon in Athens. The goddess is depicted standing, holding a spear and a statue of Victory, with a highly decorated helmet surmounted by a Sphinx. The statue was forty feet tall, made of ivory and gold, with marble eyes. The Parthenon itself was also built under Phidias's direction, adorned with sculptures including the Elgin marbles now in the British Museum. Both the Jupiter and Minerva statues are lost, but extant statues and busts are believed to reflect Phidias's conception of their grave and dignified beauty, characterized by repose.
Chapter 149
The Venus de Medici
This chapter describes the Venus de Medici statue, its supposed origin with the sculptor Cleomenes of Athens around 200 BC, the story that the artist used the most perfect female forms as models, and literary allusions to the statue by Thomson and Byron.
Chapter 150
The Apollo Belvedere
This chapter describes the Apollo Belvedere, a highly esteemed ancient Roman marble statue of Apollo, over seven feet tall, depicted naked except for a cloak. The statue is believed to represent Apollo in the moment after shooting an arrow to destroy the monster Python, capturing the god's graceful majesty and triumphant power.
Chapter 151
The Diana a la Biche
This chapter describes the sculpture known as the Diana of the Hind, located in the palace of the Louvre. It compares the statue to the Apollo Belvedere, noting similarities in attitude, size, and execution, though it is considered inferior to the Apollo. The statue depicts Diana as a huntress in eager motion, with her left hand over the forehead of a hind running beside her and her right arm reaching back to draw an arrow from her quiver.
Chapter 152
The Poets of Mythology
This chapter discusses the mythical status of Homer, the traditional author of the Iliad and Odyssey, and the scholarly debate over the authorship and transmission of these epic poems. It describes Homer as a blind wandering minstrel and notes the uncertainty of his birthplace, as well as the theory that the poems were composed by multiple authors and preserved orally by professional reciters called Rhapsodists.
Chapter 153
Virgil
This chapter introduces the Roman poet Virgil (Publius Vergilius Maro), born in Mantua in 70 BC, and discusses his epic poem the Aeneid. It compares Virgil to Homer and Milton, noting Virgil's inferiority in originality but superiority in correctness and elegance. The chapter includes Dryden's epigram comparing the three poets and Cowper's reflection on the succession of genius across Greece, Italy, and England.
Chapter 154
Ovid
This chapter provides a biographical sketch of the Roman poet Ovid (Naso), detailing his birth in 43 BC, his education, his early career in public office, and his devotion to poetry. It describes his life in Rome among contemporaries like Horace and Virgil, his banishment at age fifty to Tomi on the Black Sea, and his final decade of exile. The chapter highlights his two major works, the Metamorphoses and the Fasti, and includes a translation of the closing lines of the Metamorphoses, in which Ovid predicts his own literary immortality.
Chapter 155
XXXVI: Modern Monsters—The Phoenix—Basilisk—Unicorn—Salamander
This chapter explores mythical creatures that persisted in popular belief after the decline of pagan mythology, focusing on the Phoenix, Basilisk, Unicorn, and Salamander. It draws from classical poets like Ovid, historians like Tacitus, and later naturalists to describe their origins, characteristics, and cultural significance, including references in literature by Dryden, Milton, Shakespeare, and Cellini.
Chapter 156
Modern Monsters
This chapter explores a set of imaginary beings that succeeded the classical monsters of ancient superstition, persisting in popular belief even after the rise of Christianity. Unlike the false gods of Paganism, these creatures are documented not in ancient poetry but in old natural history books and travelers' narratives, with accounts drawn chiefly from the Penny Cyclopedia.
Chapter 157
The Phoenix
This chapter recounts the myth of the Phoenix, a unique bird that reproduces itself by building a funeral pyre of aromatic spices, dying in flames, and being reborn from its own remains. The story is presented through the accounts of Ovid, Tacitus, Herodotus, and later writers, with poetic allusions by Dryden and Milton.
Chapter 158
The Cockatrice, or Basilisk
This chapter describes the mythical basilisk, or cockatrice, as the king of serpents, endowed with a crown-like crest and deadly powers including burning, petrifying looks, and lethal breath. It recounts ancient and medieval beliefs about its origin from a cock's egg hatched under a toad, its enmity with the weasel and the cock, and its use in temples. The chapter also references Pliny, Lucan, Shakespeare, and Shelley, and critiques the credulity of earlier naturalists like Aldrovandus.
Chapter 159
The Unicorn
This chapter explores the mythical unicorn as described by Pliny the Roman naturalist, detailing its ferocious appearance, the legends surrounding its horn and capture, and the modern zoological skepticism about its existence, noting that the rhinoceros and giraffe have only partial resemblances.
Chapter 160
The Salamander
This chapter recounts a story from Benvenuto Cellini's autobiography about his father showing him a salamander in the fire when he was five years old, and then discusses the legendary properties of salamanders, including their supposed ability to resist and extinguish fire, the use of their skin for fireproof cloth (actually asbestos), and a scientific explanation involving the animal's milky secretion and hibernation habits.
Chapter 161
Eastern Mythology—Zoroaster—Hindu Mythology—Castes—Buddha—Grand Lama
This chapter surveys Eastern religious and mythological traditions, beginning with Zoroastrianism's dualistic cosmology of Ormuzd and Ahriman, its simple rites, and its survival among the Parsees. It then examines Hindu mythology based on the Vedas, the Trimurti of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, the caste system, and the Avatars of Vishnu. The chapter also covers the life and teachings of Buddha, his rejection of the Vedas and caste, and the spread of Buddhism. Finally, it discusses the doctrine of the Grand Lama and voluntary divine incarnations.
Chapter 162
Zoroaster
This chapter describes the ancient Persian religion founded by Zoroaster, focusing on the dualistic cosmology of Ormuzd (good) and Ahriman (evil), the simple religious rites involving fire and mountain worship, and the historical persistence of Zoroastrianism through the rise of Christianity and Islam, culminating in the modern Parsees of India.
Chapter 163
Hindu Mythology
This chapter introduces the religion of the Hindus, which is founded on the Vedas, believed to be composed by Brahma and arranged by the sage Vyasa. It describes the supreme god Brahma and the Trimurti—Brahma (creation), Vishnu (preservation), and Siva (destruction)—along with inferior gods such as Indra, Agni, Yama, and Surya. The chapter also explains the Vedantic concept of the human soul as a spark of the divine.
Chapter 164
Vishnu
This chapter describes Vishnu, the second god in the Hindu triad, as the personification of the preserving principle. It explains his ten primary Avatars (incarnations) taken to protect the world, including Matsya the Fish, the Tortoise, Krishna, Buddha as a delusive incarnation, and the future Kalki who will restore virtue at the end of the age.
Chapter 165
Siva
This chapter introduces Siva, the third person of the Hindu triad, as the personification of the destroying principle. It explains that despite being third in the triad, Siva (also called Mahadeva) has more worshippers than Brahma or Vishnu, and that in the Puranas his destructive power is not emphasized until the end of the universe. Instead, Siva represents regeneration. The chapter contrasts the sects of Vishnu and Siva, noting that Vishnu's followers are generally more tender toward life and abstain from animal food, while Siva's followers practice a more cruel worship.
Chapter 166
Juggernaut
The chapter describes the temple and worship of Juggernaut, an idol of carved wood with a hideous face, located near the coast southwest of Calcutta. During festivals, the idol is placed on a tall wheeled tower, pulled by ropes by devotees, while some worshippers throw themselves under the wheels as a sacrifice, amid shouts of approval. Pilgrims flock by the tens of thousands to the temple, especially in March and July, where all castes eat together.
Chapter 167
Castes
This chapter describes the Hindu caste system, its origins according to tradition, the roles and privileges of each caste (Brahmans, Shatriyas, Vaissyas, Sudras), and the extreme degradation of the Pariahs, who fall outside the original pure classes.
Chapter 168
Buddha
This chapter describes the life and teachings of Buddha (Gautama), a mortal sage born about 1000 BCE, son of a king, who renounced his royal life to meditate and later taught at Benares. His doctrines spread across India and beyond, rejecting the Vedas, caste distinctions, and bloody sacrifices, while establishing a priesthood that begged for maintenance. Despite initial tolerance, Buddhism was later persecuted in India but spread to China, Corea, Japan, and Java.
Chapter 169
The Grand Lama
This chapter explores the Buddhist and Brahminical doctrine of the human soul as an emanation of the divine spirit, confined to a body due to past sins, and the concept of voluntary incarnations of Buddha, particularly the Dalai Lama in Thibet. It discusses the historical rise of the Lama to temporal and spiritual power after the victories of Genghis Khan, and notes the surprising similarities between Lamaist and Roman Catholic practices, possibly derived from Nestorian Christians.
Chapter 170
Prester John
This chapter recounts the European legend of Prester John, a mythical Christian priest-king said to rule in Upper Asia. The story traces how reports of a Lama among the Tartars sparked the belief, leading to papal and French missions that found only Nestorian Christians. Finally, a Portuguese traveler identified the Negus of Abyssinia as Prester John, a notion referenced by Milton in Paradise Lost.
Chapter 171
Northern Mythology—Valhalla—The Valkyrior
This chapter introduces Northern (Scandinavian) mythology, describing the creation of the world from the giant Ymir, the gods Odin, Vili, and Ve, and the formation of Midgard. It details the structure of the universe supported by the ash tree Yggdrasil, the abode of the gods in Asgard, and the joys of Valhalla where fallen heroes feast and fight. The Valkyrie are described as Odin's messengers who choose the slain. The chapter also covers Thor and his hammer, other gods like Frey and Bragi, and the mischievous Loki and his monstrous children: the wolf Fenris, the Midgard serpent, and Hela (Death). A story is included of how Thor paid a mountain giant for building a fortress, involving Loki's deceit.
Chapter 172
Northern Mythology
This chapter introduces the mythology of the Scandinavian peoples, as recorded in the Eddas. It describes the creation of the world from the body of the frost giant Ymir, the emergence of the gods Odin, Vili, and Ve, and the formation of the first humans from trees. The structure of the universe is explained through the ash tree Yggdrasil, with its roots extending into Asgard, Jotunheim, and Niffleheim. The chapter also details the realm of Asgard, the bridge Bifrost, Odin's throne and his ravens Hugin and Munin, and the Norns who dispense fate.
Chapter 173
Of the Joys of Valhalla
This chapter describes Valhalla, the great hall of Odin, where heroes who have died bravely in battle feast on the boar Schrimnir, which regenerates each night, and drink mead from the she-goat Heidrum. Their daily pastime is fighting to the death, only to be healed and return to feast again.
Chapter 174
The Valkyrie
This chapter introduces the Valkyrie, warlike virgins who serve Odin by choosing heroes slain in battle to dwell in Valhalla, preparing for the final conflict with the giants. Their armor creates the Aurora Borealis.
Chapter 175
Of Thor and the Other Gods
This chapter introduces Thor, the thunderer and Odin's eldest son, along with his three precious possessions: a hammer that returns to his hand, a belt of strength that doubles his might, and iron gloves for wielding his mallet. It also describes other Norse gods including Frey, who presides over rain and sunshine; Freya, the goddess of love and beauty; Bragi, the god of poetry; Iduna, keeper of the apples of youth; and Heimdall, the watchman of the gods with extraordinary senses.
Chapter 176
Of Loki and His Progeny
This chapter introduces Loki, the calumniator of the gods, and describes his three monstrous children: the wolf Fenris, the Midgard serpent, and Hela (Death). It recounts how Odin disposed of them—casting the serpent into the ocean, Hela into Niffleheim, and the gods' struggle to bind Fenris with the magical chain Gleipnir, which cost Tyr his hand.
Chapter 177
How Thor Paid the Mountain Giant His Wages
The gods agree to let a giant builder fortify their home in exchange for Freya, the sun, and the moon, but only if he finishes by summer. With Loki's advice, the giant uses his horse Svadilfari, which does most of the work. As the deadline nears, the gods threaten Loki to prevent completion. Loki transforms into a mare to lure the horse away, causing the giant to fail. The giant reveals his true form, and Thor kills him with his hammer.
Chapter 178
The Recovery of the Hammer
Thor's hammer is stolen by the giant Thrym, who demands Freya as his bride for its return. Loki persuades Thor to disguise himself as Freya, and they travel to Jotunheim. Thrym is deceived by Loki's excuses for Thor's unladylike behavior, and when the hammer is placed in Thor's lap, he throws off his disguise, kills Thrym and his followers. The chapter also recounts how Frey lost his sword by giving it to Skirnir as a reward for winning the giantess Gerda as his bride.
Chapter 179
Thor's Visit to Jotunheim
Thor, accompanied by Loki and his servant Thialfi, journeys to the land of the giants. They encounter the giant Skrymir, who tricks them with illusions, and later arrive at Utgard, where they compete in various contests against the giant king Utgard-Loki's champions, only to discover that their opponents were elemental forces and illusions. Thor's mighty feats, including drinking from a horn connected to the sea and wrestling with Old Age, are revealed to have had cosmic effects.
Chapter 180
Thor's Visit to Jotunheim, the Giant's Country
Thor, accompanied by his servant Thialfi and Loki, journeys to the land of giants. They encounter Skrymir, a giant whose glove they mistake for a hall. After traveling together, Thor attempts to strike Skrymir with his mallet but fails due to illusions. They arrive at Utgard-Loki's palace, where Loki, Thialfi, and Thor compete in eating, running, drinking, lifting, and wrestling contests, all of which they lose. Utgard-Loki later reveals that the contests were illusions: Logi was fire, Hugi was thought, the horn was connected to the sea, the cat was the Midgard serpent, and Elli was old age. Thor, enraged, finds the city vanished.
Chapter 181
XL: The Death of Baldur—The Elves—Runic Letters—Iceland—Teutonic Mythology—Nibelungen Lied
This chapter recounts the death of Baldur the Good, tricked by Loki into being killed by a mistletoe dart thrown by the blind Hodur, and Hermod's journey to Hel to seek Baldur's return. It also covers Teutonic mythology, including the Nibelungen Lied and Wagner's Nibelungen Ring, focusing on Siegfried's acquisition of the Nibelungen hoard, his betrayal and murder by Hagan, and the eventual downfall of the gods.
Chapter 182
The Death of Baldur
Baldur the Good is tormented by dreams of his own death. Frigga secures oaths from all things not to harm him, but Loki tricks the blind god Hodur into killing Baldur with a mistletoe dart. Hermod rides to Hel to negotiate Baldur's return, but Loki, disguised as the hag Thaukt, refuses to weep for him, condemning Baldur to remain in the underworld.
Chapter 183
The Funeral of Baldur
The gods hold a grand funeral for Baldur, burning his body on his ship Hringham alongside his wife Nanna, who dies of grief. Loki, fearing punishment, flees and hides as a salmon but is captured by Thor, bound, and tormented by venom from a serpent, causing earthquakes.
Chapter 184
The Elves
This chapter describes the two classes of Elves in Norse mythology: the Light Elves, who are fair, benevolent, and dwell in Alfheim under Freyr's domain, and the Dark Elves, who are ugly dwarfs that shun sunlight, live in caves, and are skilled in runes and metalwork, having originated from the decaying flesh of Ymir.
Chapter 185
Ragnarok, the Twilight of the Gods
This chapter describes the Norse prophecy of Ragnarok, the apocalyptic destruction of the gods and the world. It details the forerunners—a triple winter, war, and cosmic upheaval—followed by the final battle on Vigrid field, where Odin, Thor, Loki, Heimdall, and others fall. The world is consumed by fire, but a new, peaceful earth emerges from the sea under Alfadur.
Chapter 186
Runic Letters
This chapter describes the Runic letters found on stones in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, their straight-line forms, their use in divination and magic, and their later use for inscriptions in the Norse language. It also references Gray's ode on the Descent of Odin.
Chapter 187
The Skalds
This chapter introduces the Skalds, the bards and poets of early Scandinavian civilization, who served as the keepers of historical lore and provided intellectual and artistic entertainment at warriors' feasts by reciting the exploits of heroes through poetry and music. Their compositions, known as Sagas, have survived as valuable historical records and depictions of contemporary society.
Chapter 188
Iceland
This chapter introduces Iceland as the source of the Eddas and Sagas, contrasting its harsh, volcanic landscape with the classical world of Greece. Carlyle's lecture describes Iceland as a land of barrenness, lava, geysers, and volcanic chasms, yet home to poetic men who recorded deep thoughts musically.
Chapter 189
Teutonic Mythology
This chapter explores Teutonic mythology, noting its close parallels with Scandinavian myths while highlighting key differences such as the identification of Odin as Wotan, the merging of Freya and Frigga into one deity, and a less warlike portrayal of the gods. The divergence is attributed to climatic and social factors, with the more advanced social condition of the Germans reflected in their mythological narratives.
Chapter 190
The Nibelungen Lied
The chapter recounts the epic Nibelungen Lied, a foundational Teutonic myth from the prehistoric era of Wotan and the Norse gods. It is divided into two parts: first, Siegfried helps King Günther win Brunhild by using a cloak of invisibility, and in return marries Kriemhild. A dispute between Kriemhild and Brunhild leads to Hagan murdering Siegfried. Second, thirteen years later, Kriemhild marries Etzel, invites the Burgundians to a feast, and orchestrates a massacre that ends with her beheading Günther and Hagan, after which she is slain by Hildebrand.
Chapter 191
The Nibelungen Hoard
This chapter describes the mythical treasure of gold and precious stones that Siegfried obtained from the Nibelungs, given to Kriemhild as her wedding portion, seized by Hagan after Siegfried's murder, buried beneath the Rhine, and lost forever when Hagan was killed by Kriemhild.
Chapter 192
Wagner’s Nibelungen Ring
This chapter summarizes Richard Wagner's music-drama 'Der Ring des Nibelungen,' tracing its sources in the Volsunga Saga, Eddas, and other Teutonic folklore. It outlines the four races (gods, giants, dwarfs, nymphs) and later creations (valkyrie, heroes), then recounts the plot across the four parts: the theft of the Rhinegold and the curse on the ring; Wotan's attempt to recover it through the hero Siegmund; Siegfried's reforging of Nothung, slaying of Fafner, and winning of Brunhild; and the final tragedy where Siegfried is betrayed and slain, Brunhild sacrifices herself, the ring returns to the Rhine, and the old world of the gods perishes, giving way to a new era of love and truth.
Chapter 193
The Druids—Iona
This chapter describes the Druids, the priestly class of the ancient Celts, their beliefs, rituals, festivals, and moral teachings, as well as the history of Iona as a refuge for Druids and later as the site of St. Columba's Christian monastery, which supplanted Druidic practices.
Chapter 194
Druids
This chapter describes the Druids, the priestly class of the ancient Celtic nations in Gaul, Britain, and Germany. It details their roles as priests, magistrates, scholars, and physicians; their worship of a supreme deity (Be'al) identified with the sun; their sacred stone circles and altars; their festivals (Beltane and Samh'in); their use of mistletoe; their ethical teachings preserved in Welsh Triads; their oral tradition and the role of Bards; and their persecution by the Romans and later by Edward I, as well as their eventual displacement by Christianity under St. Columba.
Chapter 195
Iona
This chapter describes the small island of Iona, its historical significance as a seat of civilization and religion in Northern Europe, the arrival of Columba and his twelve followers in 563 AD, the establishment of a monastery, the practices of the Culdees (including their allowance of marriage and rejection of celibacy and poverty), the island's decline due to Viking raids and the suppression of the Culdees, its later use as a nunnery, and its eventual status as a tourist destination for its ecclesiastical ruins and Druidical cairns.
Chapter 196
King Arthur and His Knights
The chapter introduces the legendary King Arthur, his knights of the Round Table, and their quests, including the pursuit of the Holy Grail, the chivalric code, and the tragic love stories that define Arthurian legend.
Chapter 197
Introduction
This introductory chapter discusses the decline of Roman power, the rise of chivalry, the training of knights, and the origins of medieval romances, including the legendary figures of Arthur and Charlemagne. It explains how chivalry emerged as a check on lawless power, the role of knights-errant, and the development of metrical and prose romances from sources like Geoffrey of Monmouth and Sir Thomas Malory's Morte d'Arthur.
Chapter 198
The Training of a Knight
This chapter describes the rigorous education and initiation of knights, from page at age seven to esquire at fourteen, culminating in knighthood at twenty-one. It covers physical training, courtly manners, the role of a lady as a knight's inspiration, and the solemn religious ceremonies of investiture.
Chapter 199
Freemen, Villains, Serfs, and Clerks
This chapter describes the social hierarchy of medieval society, focusing on the distinctions between freemen, serfs, villains, and clerks. Freemen were independent landowners who sometimes became vassals for protection. Serfs were the lowest class of slaves, with all their labor belonging to their master. Villains were less degraded, attached to the soil but able to keep surplus produce after paying a fixed rent. The term 'clerk' originally referred to clergy but later expanded to include anyone who could read, granting them legal privileges such as exemption from capital punishment.
Chapter 200
Tournaments
This chapter describes the origins, pageantry, and chivalric customs of medieval tournaments and jousts in France, including the Church's condemnation, the rules of combat, and the role of ladies in encouraging and rewarding knights.
Chapter 201
Mail Armor
This chapter describes the two main types of mail armor—plate or scale mail and chain mail—focusing on the hauberk, its construction from riveted iron links, and its use as body protection. It details the addition of gloves, hose, and hood, the quilted lining worn underneath, and the eventual replacement of mail by plate armor around 1300. Shields are also briefly discussed as being made of wood covered with leather and reinforced with metal hoops.
Chapter 202
Helmets
This chapter describes the construction and function of medieval helmets, including the headpiece, visor, bever, and ventayle, as well as how they were secured and the methods used to dispatch a fallen knight.
Chapter 203
Romances
This chapter traces the origins and development of medieval romances, explaining how the fabulous chronicles of Arthur and Charlemagne were translated from Latin and local dialects into the more widely understood Norman French, becoming the foundation of a new literary genre. It discusses the role of troubadours and trouveurs, the division of the French language into langue d'oc and langue d'oïl, and how the heroic exploits of Arthur and Charlemagne were embellished over time to inspire chivalric ideals.
Chapter 204
Metrical Romances
This chapter discusses the earliest form of romances, which appeared in rude verse and were sung or recited at feasts. It provides specimens of the language used after the Norman conquest, including a passage from Robert de Beauvais and Robert de Brunne, and explains the transition to prose romances in the late thirteenth century. The chapter includes a sample from Sir Thomas Mallory's Morte d'Arthur, which lists the nine worthies and introduces King Arthur as the first Christian worthy.
Chapter 205
The Mythical History of England
This chapter recounts the legendary origins of Britain, beginning with the giant Albion and the story of Brutus the Trojan, a descendant of Aeneas, who after accidentally killing his father, leads a band of Trojan exiles from Greece. Guided by a vision from Diana, Brutus sails westward and founds a new Troy in Britain. The chapter then traces a line of early British kings, including the tale of King Leir and his three daughters (the source of Shakespeare's King Lear), the fratricidal conflict of Ferrex and Porrex, the wise rule of Dunwallo Molmutius, the story of Elidure's piety in restoring his deposed brother, and the reign of Lud who renamed London. It also mentions Cassibellaunus's resistance to Julius Caesar.
Chapter 206
Bladud
Bladud, a legendary king, founded the city of Bath and dedicated its healing waters to Minerva. Known for his inventive mind and practice of magic, he crafted wings to fly but fell to his death upon the temple of Apollo in Trinovant after a reign of twenty years.
Chapter 207
Leir
King Leir, having no sons, decides to divide his kingdom among his three daughters based on their declarations of love. Goneril and Regan flatter him with extravagant claims and receive their shares, but Cordeilla gives a honest, dutiful answer, which enrages Leir. He disinherits her and divides the kingdom between the two elder daughters. Leir first stays with Goneril, but his retinue is reduced; then with Regan, who further humiliates him. Realizing his folly, he travels to France to seek Cordeilla. She receives him kindly, restores his dignity, and leads an army to reclaim his throne. Leir rules three more years, then Cordeilla succeeds him for five years before being overthrown by her sisters' sons. The chapter notes Shakespeare's adaptation in King Lear and Milton's telling of the story.
Chapter 208
Ferrex and Porrex
Two brothers, Ferrex and Porrex, quarrel over the kingdom after their father Leir. Porrex expels Ferrex, who returns with Frankish aid and is slain in battle. Their mother, enraged by the death of her favorite son, murders Porrex while he sleeps, tearing him apart with her women. This story inspired the first English tragedy, 'Gorboduc' (later 'Ferrex and Porrex'), written by Thomas Sackville and Thomas Norton in 1561.
Chapter 209
Dunwallo Molmutius
This chapter introduces Dunwallo Molmutius, a notable figure who established the Molmutine laws, which granted sanctuary to temples, cities, and their approach roads, and extended protection to ploughs, thereby sanctifying agricultural labor. The chapter includes a reference to Shakespeare's 'Cymbeline', where Molmutius is credited as the first Briton to crown himself king.
Chapter 210
Brennus and Belinus
The sons of Molmutius, Brennus and Belinus, quarrel after their father's death. Brennus is driven out of Britain and finds refuge in Gaul, where he marries the daughter of the king of the Allobroges and becomes co-ruler. Geoffrey of Monmouth later identifies this Brennus with the Gallic leader who sacked Rome.
Chapter 211
Elidure
After the reigns of Belinus and Brennus, several minor kings ruled before Elidure. His brother Arthgallo, the king, was deposed by nobles who placed Elidure on the throne. Five years later, while hunting, Elidure encountered his impoverished brother in the forest, embraced him, and concealed him in the palace. Feigning illness, Elidure persuaded his nobles to allow him to abdicate and restore Arthgallo as king. Arthgallo reigned wisely for ten years, then died, leaving the kingdom to his short-lived sons. Eventually Elidure returned to the throne and ruled justly, earning the name 'the pious.' Wordsworth later adapted the story into a poem.
Chapter 212
Lud
After Elidure, the Chronicle lists many kings of little note until Lud, who greatly enlarged Trinovant (his capital), surrounded it with a wall, and renamed it Lud's Town, later London. Lud was buried by the city gate called Ludgate. His sons were too young to rule at his death, so his brother Caswallaun (Cassibellaunus) succeeded, a brave and magnificent prince whose fame spread to distant lands.
Chapter 213
Cassibellaunus
Julius Caesar, having conquered Gaul, attempts to invade Britain but is repelled by Cassibellaun and his forces. In single combat, Nennius, Cassibellaun's brother, captures Caesar's sword. The Britons force Caesar to retreat to Gaul, and Shakespeare later alludes to this event in Cymbeline.
Chapter 214
Kymbelinus, or Cymbeline
The chapter recounts the Roman invasion of Britain under Caesar, the taking of Cymbeline as a hostage, his Roman education, and his subsequent peaceful reign as a Roman ally. It also describes the rebellion of his sons Guiderius and Arviragus, Guiderius's death in battle, and Arviragus's eventual peace with Rome.
Chapter 215
Armorica
The chapter recounts the conquest and colonization of Armorica by the Roman general Maximus and Conan of Wales, leading to the region being renamed Brittany and its language assimilating with Welsh. It describes the eventual blending of Romans with native Britons and the withdrawal of Roman armies, which left Britain vulnerable to barbarian invasions, setting the stage for the era of King Arthur. The chapter also references the myth of Albion, the giant, and his battle with Hercules, as mentioned in Spenser's Faery Queene.
Chapter 216
III: Merlin
This chapter recounts the origins, life, and magical deeds of Merlin, the son of an Incubus and a virtuous woman, who was saved by baptism. It describes his role as advisor to King Vortigern, his revelation of the dragons beneath the tower, and his service to Pendragon, Uther, and Arthur. The chapter also details Merlin's enchantment and imprisonment by his mistress Viviane (the Lady of the Lake) in a tower of magic, his final communication with Sir Gawain urging the quest for the Holy Grail, and his legacy as a magical artificer in later romances.
Chapter 217
IV: Arthur
This chapter recounts the historical and legendary origins of King Arthur, including his rise to power by drawing the sword from the stone, his marriage to Guenevere, and his battles against rebel kings and Saxons. It also describes the arrival of Gawain and his brothers to Arthur's court, their victory over enemy forces near London, and the traditional stories of Arthur's death and possible return.
Chapter 218
King Arthur
The chapter recounts the early history of King Arthur's lineage, beginning with King Arthur Constans and his sons, including the treachery of Vortigern, the rise of Uther Pendragon, and the magical assistance of Merlin. It details the establishment of the Round Table and its chivalric code, Uther's passion for Igerne, and the deception that led to Arthur's birth.
Chapter 219
Arthur Chosen King
Arthur, at fifteen, is elected king after his father's death, but faces opposition from nobles who doubt his lineage. Bishop Brice proposes a divine test: a sword in a stone, which only the true king can draw. After many fail, Arthur, serving as squire to Sir Kay, easily draws the sword, proving his right to rule. He is crowned, then faces rebellion from eleven kings and a duke. With Merlin's advice, he secures aid from Kings Ban and Bohort of Brittany, and after Merlin's enchantment disrupts the rebel camp, Arthur defeats them. He then battles the Saxons at Mount Badon, where, armed with Caliburn and the shield Priwen, he achieves a decisive victory.
Chapter 220
Guenever
Arthur, guided by Merlin, visits King Laodegan's court to seek a bride. After aiding Laodegan against King Ryence's forces, Arthur wins Guenever's love and is betrothed to her. Meanwhile, Gawain and his brothers arrive near London, defeat an enemy convoy, and are welcomed by the city.
Chapter 221
Arthur (Continued)
After the victory at Mount Badon, Arthur subdues the Scots, Picts, Ireland, Iceland, Gothland, and the Orkneys, establishing a peaceful reign for twelve years. He then extends his power abroad, conquering Norway and Gaul, and later holds a magnificent court at Caerleon. The chapter also recounts Arthur's battle with a giant on St. Michael's Mount, his encounter with a knight at a pass, and his acquisition of a sword from the Lady of the Lake.
Chapter 222
King Arthur Slays the Giant of St. Michael’s Mount
While encamped in Brittany, King Arthur learns from a countryman that a giant on St. Michael's Mount has been abducting and devouring children, and has recently taken the Duchess of Brittany. Arthur, accompanied by Sir Bedver and Sir Kay, rides to the mount. He ascends alone, confronts the giant, and after a fierce struggle—during which the giant crushes Arthur's ribs and they roll down the hill—Arthur stabs the giant with his dagger. His knights then behead the giant, and Arthur orders the head displayed and the spoils distributed. He also commands a church be built on the site in honor of St. Michael.
Chapter 223
King Arthur Gets a Sword from the Lady of the Lake
King Arthur rescues Merlin from three churls, then encounters a knight guarding a pass. After a fierce battle, Arthur's sword is broken and he is nearly killed, but Merlin puts the knight to sleep with enchantment. Arthur recuperates at a hermit's, then Merlin leads him to a lake where the Lady of the Lake offers a magical sword, which Arthur takes. They return to Caerleon, where his knights rejoice at his safe return.
Chapter 224
VI: Sir Gawain
Sir Gawain, nephew of King Arthur, is renowned for his courtesy. When King Arthur is captured by a grim baron and must answer what women most desire, a loathly lady reveals the secret: women want their own will. In return, Arthur must find her a husband. Gawain volunteers to marry the hideous lady. On their wedding night, she transforms into a beautiful woman, explaining she was enchanted. By Gawain yielding his will to hers, the enchantment is broken, and she and her brother, the grim baron, are freed from their curses.
Chapter 225
Sir Gawain's Marriage
King Arthur, challenged by a grim baron to discover what women most desire, learns the answer from a loathly lady: 'their will.' In return, he must find her a husband. Sir Gawain volunteers to marry her, despite her hideous appearance. On their wedding night, Gawain confesses his aversion, but the lady argues that age brings discretion, ugliness security, and true gentility lies in character. When Gawain yields his will to hers, the enchantment breaks, revealing her true beauty and freeing her brother, the grim baron, from his curse.
Chapter 226
VII: Caradoc Briefbras; or, Caradoc with the Shrunken Arm
Caradoc, son of Ysenne and the enchanter Eliaures, proves his courage by accepting a beheading challenge from his unknown father. Later, a wicked woman causes Eliaures to afflict Caradoc with a serpent that drains his arm. His betrothed Guimier and friend Cador seek him out, and Guimier sacrifices herself to lure the serpent away, allowing Cador to slay it. Caradoc's arm heals but remains shrunken, earning him the name Briefbras. The chapter concludes with the ballad of the Boy and the Mantle, which tests the fidelity of Arthur's court ladies.
Chapter 227
Launcelot of the Lake
This chapter recounts the early life of Sir Launcelot, from his birth to King Ban and Queen Helen, his rescue and upbringing by the Lady of the Lake, and his arrival at King Arthur's court where he falls in love with Queen Guenever. It then follows Launcelot's adventures, including his battle with Sir Turquine, whom he slays, freeing many imprisoned knights of the Round Table, and his subsequent rescue of a knight attacked by three assailants. The chapter concludes with Launcelot being honored by all as the greatest knight in the world.
Chapter 228
Sir Launcelot
Sir Launcelot, seeking the Holy Grail, encounters a hermit, confesses his sins, and repents his adulterous love for Queen Guenever. He then journeys into a forest, comes to a stone cross and an old chapel, where he witnesses a miraculous healing by the Sangreal but is unable to partake due to his unconfessed sin. After waking, he laments his failure and seeks further confession and counsel from a hermit.
Chapter 229
The Adventure of the Cart
Queen Guenever and ten knights of the Round Table go a-maying, but are ambushed by Sir Maleagans, who has long loved the queen. She surrenders to save her knights, and secretly sends a page to summon Sir Launcelot. Launcelot, in his haste, rides in a cart—a vehicle of shame—to reach her. After overcoming enchantments and a duel with Maleagans, he rescues the queen, but is rebuked by Guenever for the cart's disgrace. He flees in despair, later returns to reconcile, and the company returns to Camelot.
Chapter 230
X: The Lady of Shalott
King Arthur proclaims a tournament at Winchester. Sir Launcelot, feigning illness, stays behind and travels in disguise to attend. He stays at the castle of Shalott, where the lord's daughter falls hopelessly in love with him. Launcelot, already devoted to Queen Guenever, politely declines her affections but accepts her scarf as a favor for the tournament. At the tournament, Launcelot fights incognito, defeating several knights including his own brother Sir Hector, who wounds him. He recovers at Shalott, then departs, leaving the Lady of Shalott heartbroken. She later sets herself adrift in a boat and dies of grief, floating to Camelot where her body and a letter explaining her love for Launcelot are discovered.
Chapter 231
XI: Queen Guenever's Peril
Queen Guenever is accused of poisoning a Scottish knight after a squire's plot to kill Sir Gawain goes awry. Sir Mador demands her punishment unless a champion defends her. With Sir Launcelot absent after a quarrel, she pleads with other knights in vain until Sir Bohort agrees conditionally. Launcelot, learning of her danger, returns in disguise as a black knight, defeats Sir Mador in combat, and proves her innocence. The true culprit confesses, and Arthur rewards Launcelot with the castle 'La Joyeuse Garde.'
Chapter 232
XII: Tristram and Isoude
Tristram, recovering from a wound in Ireland, falls in love with Princess Isoude while serving as her music tutor. After revealing his identity as the slayer of her uncle, he is banished but returns to Cornwall. Bound by an oath to King Mark, he retrieves Isoude as his uncle's bride, but a love potion mistakenly consumed by Tristram and Isoude seals their tragic passion. The chapter follows their secret love, Palamedes' rivalry, and the jealous suspicions of King Mark.
Chapter 233
XIII: Tristram and Isoude (Continued)
Tristram, banished from Cornwall, wanders in the forest of Arnantes, rescues King Arthur from enchantment, and participates in a grand tournament. Meanwhile, Isoude confesses her love for Tristram to King Mark, who imprisons her. Tristram's jealousy over a letter to Pheredin leads to separation, but he eventually returns to aid King Mark and is restored to favor, only to be banished again. The chapter ends with Tristram's heroic deeds and his secret communication with Isoude.
Chapter 234
XIV: Sir Tristram’s Battle with Sir Launcelot
Sir Tristram rescues Sir Palamedes from nine knights led by the villainous Sir Breuse sans Pitie, then challenges Palamedes to a duel. They agree to meet at Merlin's monument near Camelot. At the appointed place, Tristram fights a fierce four-hour battle with a white knight, only to discover it is Sir Launcelot, not Palamedes. The two knights reconcile, embrace, and ride to Camelot, where they meet Sir Gawain and Sir Gaheris. King Arthur welcomes Tristram and makes him a Knight of the Round Table, praising his skills in hunting, music, and chivalry.
Chapter 235
Sir Tristram as a Sportsman
This chapter highlights Tristram's reputation among the Romancers as the supreme authority and model in all matters of hunting and falconry. Through a passage from the Faery Queene, Tristram tells Sir Calidore of his noble upbringing and his lifelong dedication to the chase, boasting an unmatched knowledge of forest game and the flight of hawks.
Chapter 236
XV: The Round Table
Merlin fabricates the Round Table with thirteen seats, twelve for knights and one perilous seat for the traitor Judas. Tristram is honored by Arthur and takes the seat of Moraunt of Ireland. King Mark, consumed by jealousy, plots to kill Tristram but fails and is accused. Isoude is kidnapped by Breuse the Pitiless but rescued by Tristram. They journey to Camelot, where Isoude is welcomed by Arthur and Guenever. Mark is reconciled with Tristram under Arthur's judgment.
Chapter 237
XVI: Sir Palamedes
Sir Tristram, unarmed, encounters Sir Palamedes in battle. Palamedes refuses to fight an unarmed knight, and after Tristram arms himself, they fight fiercely. Tristram gains the upper hand but spares Palamedes, who then asks for forgiveness and expresses his desire to be baptized. Tristram agrees, and Palamedes is christened at the church of Carlisle with Tristram and Sir Galleron as godfathers. They then ride to King Arthur's court, where the king and queen welcome Palamedes's conversion. Later, Sir Gawain returns from Brittany with a message from Merlin urging King Arthur to undertake the quest of the Holy Grail, and Tristram decides to join the quest.
Chapter 238
Sir Tristram
Tristram, in Brittany, aids King Hoel in war, marries Isoude of the White Hands, and later is mortally wounded. He sends for Queen Isoude of Cornwall, but his wife deceives him about the color of the sails, leading to his death. Queen Isoude arrives and dies of grief. They are buried together, and a vine grows from their tombs.
Chapter 239
Perceval
Perceval, raised in isolation by his mother after the loss of his father and brothers, encounters knights in the forest and becomes determined to pursue knighthood. Despite his mother's warnings, he rides to King Arthur's court on a bony horse with makeshift trappings. There, he witnesses an insult to Queen Guenever and, after being mocked by Sir Kay, defeats the offending knight with a sharpened stick. He later falls into a deep thought, rebuffs Sir Kay's rude approach, and is courteously welcomed by Sir Gawain, who brings him before Arthur.
Chapter 240
XIX: The Sangreal, or Holy Graal
The chapter introduces the Sangreal (Holy Grail), the cup used by Christ at the Last Supper, and its journey to Britain through Joseph of Arimathea. It recounts the fall of the Sinner King and the Grail's withdrawal from visibility. At Camelot, during Pentecost, the Grail appears in a miraculous vision, prompting Sir Gawain and many knights of the Round Table to vow a quest to find it. Sir Galahad, son of Launcelot and descendant of Joseph of Arimathea, arrives and proves his worth by safely sitting in the Siege Perilous. After a tournament, the knights depart on their quest. Galahad later acquires a miraculous white shield with a red cross, previously belonging to Joseph of Arimathea, and defeats Sir Gawain in a tournament, leading Gawain to abandon his quest.
Chapter 241
Sir Galahad
Sir Galahad, after rescuing Perceval, rides into a forest and eventually comes to the sea, where he joins Sir Bohort and Sir Perceval on a ship. Guided by Perceval's sister, they board another ship containing the Sangreal. They sail to the city of Sarras, where Galahad heals a crippled man and is made king. After a year, Galahad is visited by Joseph of Arimathea, beholds the Sangreal, and dies, his soul taken to heaven while the holy vessel is lifted up.
Chapter 242
Sir Gawain
Sir Gawain, seeking to join Sir Galahad in his adventures, is rebuked by a monk for his sinfulness and refuses to do penance. Later, in a tournament, Sir Galahad strikes Gawain down, wounding him severely, and Gawain acknowledges his quest is over.
Chapter 243
XX: The Sangreal (Continued)
Sir Launcelot, in his quest for the Holy Grail, encounters a sick knight healed by the holy vessel but is himself unable to witness it due to his sins. He confesses to a hermit, vowing to forsake Queen Guenever. Sir Perceval is attacked by twenty knights, rescued by Sir Galahad, then tempted by a fiend disguised as a woman and a beautiful lady, but saves himself by making the sign of the cross.
Chapter 244
Sir Launcelot
Sir Launcelot, seeking the Holy Grail, encounters a hermit, confesses his sins, and repents his adulterous love for Queen Guenever. He then journeys into a forest, comes to a stone cross and an old chapel, where he witnesses a miraculous healing by the Sangreal but is unable to partake due to his unconfessed sin. After waking, he laments his failure and seeks further confession and counsel from a hermit.
Chapter 245
Sir Perceval
Sir Perceval, riding alone, is attacked by twenty armed men and nearly slain, but is rescued by Sir Galahad. After his horse is killed, he is tempted by a fiend disguised as a woman who offers him a horse, which nearly carries him to his doom. He escapes by making the sign of the cross. Later, he encounters a beautiful lady in a ship who claims to be disinherited; she tempts him with food and wine and nearly seduces him into swearing fealty, but he sees the red cross on his sword, makes the sign of the cross, and the illusion vanishes, revealing the fiend.
Chapter 246
XXI: The Sangreal (Continued)
Sir Launcelot returns to Camelot after a failed attempt to enter the chamber of the Sangreal, where he is struck down by a divine breath and lies unconscious for twenty-four days. Sir Galahad, with Sir Perceval and Sir Bohort, sails to the city of Sarras, where Galahad is made king and the Sangreal is enshrined. Sir Bohort faces a moral dilemma between rescuing his brother Sir Lionel and aiding a distressed maiden, choosing the latter, and later mourns what he believes is Lionel's death.
Chapter 247
Sir Bohort
Sir Bohort departs from Camelot on the quest for the Sangreal, confesses to a religious hermit, and faces a moral dilemma when he must choose between rescuing his brother Sir Lionel from two knights or saving a distressed gentlewoman. He chooses to help the maid, but later believes his brother has been killed. After burying a body he thinks is Sir Lionel's, he discovers his brother alive but wrathful. Sir Lionel attacks him, and Sir Colgrevance intervenes, only to be slain. A divine voice prevents fratricide, and Sir Bohort is directed to the sea, where he meets Sir Perceval and learns they await Sir Galahad.
Chapter 248
Sir Launcelot (Resumed)
Sir Launcelot, having been healed after a vision of the Holy Grail, returns to Camelot to find many knights slain. He recounts his adventures, including his approach to a castle guarded by lions, his rebuke for trusting in armor over faith, and his partial vision of the Sangreal, which he is forbidden to fully enter. After a swoon and twenty-four days of recovery, he accepts that the quest is achieved for him.
Chapter 249
Sir Galahad
Sir Galahad, after rescuing Perceval, rides into a forest and eventually comes to the sea, where he joins Sir Bohort and Sir Perceval on a ship. Guided by Perceval's sister, they board another ship containing the Sangreal. They sail to the city of Sarras, where Galahad heals a crippled man and is made king. After a year, Galahad is visited by Joseph of Arimathea, beholds the Sangreal, and dies, his soul taken to heaven while the holy vessel is lifted up.
Chapter 250
Sir Agrivain's Treason
Sir Perceval and Sir Bohort mourn Sir Galahad's death; Sir Perceval becomes a hermit and dies, and Sir Bohort returns to Camelot. Sir Launcelot resumes his affair with Queen Guenever, leading Sir Agrivain to plot their exposure. Sir Agrivain and Sir Modred attempt to trap them, but Sir Launcelot escapes, killing Sir Agrivain and wounding Sir Modred. Queen Guenever is condemned to death, but Sir Launcelot rescues her, accidentally killing Sir Gaheris and Sir Gareth. This sparks a war between King Arthur and Sir Launcelot, which is temporarily resolved by the Pope's intervention. After a year of peace, King Arthur and Sir Gawain invade Sir Launcelot's lands. Sir Launcelot defeats Sir Gawain in single combat but spares his life.
Chapter 251
Morte d'Arthur
King Arthur, mortally wounded after the final battle with the traitor Sir Modred, commands Sir Bedivere to cast the sword Excalibur into the lake. After twice hiding the sword, Bedivere finally obeys, and a hand from the water catches it. Arthur is taken by barge to Avalon, attended by three queens. Sir Bedivere later finds a hermit who has buried Arthur, and he remains there in prayer. Queen Guenever becomes a nun at Almesbury. Sir Launcelot, arriving too late, seeks Guenever but is rebuffed; he too takes up a religious life. The chapter closes with the famous epitaph: 'Here Arthur lies, King once and King to be.'
Chapter 252
The Mabinogeon
This chapter introduces the Mabinogeon, a collection of Welsh myths and legends, often associated with the Mabinogion. It presents tales of ancient British heroes, magical transformations, and quests, blending Celtic mythology with Arthurian legend.
Chapter 253
Introductory Note
This introductory note discusses the historical neglect of Welsh manuscripts known as the Mabinogeon, the efforts of scholars like Southey and Scott to see them published, and the eventual successful translation and publication by Lady Charlotte Guest, who made these ancient tales accessible to English readers.
Chapter 254
The Britons
This chapter introduces the earliest inhabitants of Britain, the Celts, and discusses the origins of the names Wales and Welsh. It covers the Roman occupation of Britain, the resistance of the native Britons, and the preservation of the original British stock in Wales and Cornwall. The chapter then delves into Welsh language and literature, highlighting the Myvyrian Archaeology of Wales and the Mabinogeon. It concludes with a discussion of the Welsh bards, including Aneurin, Taliesin, Llywarch Hen, and Merlin, and provides examples of Triads, a unique form of Welsh poetry.
Chapter 255
The Welsh Language and Literature
This chapter discusses the antiquity of the Welsh language, the challenges of accessing ancient Welsh poetry, and the efforts of Owen Jones and Dr. Owen to publish Welsh literary works, culminating in the publication of the Mabinogeon by Lady Charlotte Guest.
Chapter 256
The Welsh Bards
This chapter discusses the oldest Welsh poets, Aneurin, Taliesin, Llywarch Hen, and Myrddin (Merlin), focusing on the authenticity of their attributed poems. It highlights Aneurin's 'Gododin,' which laments the defeat of the Britons at the battle of Cattraeth due to excessive mead-drinking, and notes the questionable authenticity of Taliesin's works due to mythical elements in his story.
Chapter 257
The Triads
This chapter introduces the Triads, a unique form of Welsh poetical composition that groups three persons, events, or observations into a single sentence. Originally devised as a memory aid, the Triads range from ancient to later compositions. The chapter provides examples of personal triads, including those attributed to King Arthur, and moral triads offering wisdom and reflections on life.
Chapter 258
The Lady of the Fountain
King Arthur holds court at Caerleon upon Usk. While Arthur sleeps, Kynon tells a tale of his past adventure: he journeyed to a magnificent castle, was well entertained, and was directed by a black woodward to a magical fountain. Upon pouring water from a silver bowl onto a marble slab, he triggered a thunderstorm and a shower, then was challenged and defeated by a black knight. Kynon returns home in shame, having failed the adventure.
Chapter 259
Kynon's Adventure
At King Arthur's court in Caerleon, Kynon recounts his past quest for adventure. He describes traveling to a magnificent castle, receiving lavish hospitality, and being directed by a black woodward to a magical fountain. After pouring water from a silver bowl onto a marble slab, he triggers a thunderstorm and a shower, followed by the song of birds. A black knight then appears, defeats him in combat, and takes his horse, leaving Kynon humiliated. He returns to the castle for another night of hospitality before going back to his own court.
Chapter 260
III: The Lady of the Fountain (Continued)
Owain sets out to find the knight who guards the fountain, following Kynon's directions. He encounters the yellow man, the black man, and the fountain, where he defeats the black knight in combat. Trapped between gates after the portcullis falls, Owain is aided by a maiden who gives him a ring of invisibility. He hides and later learns of the black knight's death. Meanwhile, Luned, the countess's maiden, pretends to seek a champion from Arthur's court but returns with Owain, who marries the countess and defends the fountain for three years.
Chapter 261
Owain's Adventure
Owain, inspired by Kynon's tale, sets out to find the knight who guards the fountain. After a perilous journey, he defeats the black knight in combat but is trapped by a portcullis. A maiden named Luned helps him escape using a magical ring of invisibility. Owain falls in love with the Countess of the Fountain, the widow of the knight he slew. Luned then persuades the Countess to seek a new defender for her lands, promising to find a knight from Arthur's court.
Chapter 262
The Lady of the Fountain (Continued)
Arthur and his household, guided by Kynon, set out to find Owain. At the fountain, Kay and then all of Arthur's knights except Gawain are overthrown by the Black Knight. Gawain fights the Black Knight for three days without either gaining the upper hand. Meanwhile, Owain rescues Luned from imprisonment and execution, aided by a lion he had saved from a serpent. He later revives after being found near death, is healed by a charitable lady, and eventually returns with the Countess to Arthur's court.
Chapter 263
Gawain's Adventure
King Arthur is sorrowful over the loss of Owain, who has been missing for three years. Gawain suggests that Arthur and his household seek Owain themselves. Guided by Kynon, they travel to the castle of the Countess of the Fountain, where they encounter a mysterious knight. After many of Arthur's knights are defeated, Gawain and the knight fight for three days, eventually recognizing each other as cousins. The knight is revealed to be Owain, and they reconcile. Owain hosts a grand banquet for Arthur and his retinue, and later returns to Britain with Arthur, staying for three years instead of the promised three months.
Chapter 264
The Adventure of the Lion
Owain, reminded of his forgotten promise to the Countess of the Fountain, falls into despair and wanders as a wild man until he is revived by a charitable lady. He later rescues a lion from a serpent, and the lion becomes his loyal companion. Owain then saves Luned, the Countess's handmaiden, from execution, defeats her accusers with the lion's help, and is reunited with the Countess, whom he brings to Arthur's court.
Chapter 265
Geraint, the Son of Erbin
Prince Geraint, having missed the hunt with King Arthur, accompanies Queen Guenever to the forest's edge. There they witness a knight, a lady, and a churlish dwarf pass by. When Guenever's maiden is struck by the dwarf for inquiring about the knight, Geraint vows to follow and challenge the knight. He follows them to a town where he finds shelter with a poor hoary-headed man, his wife, and their beautiful daughter, Enid. The old man explains that the knight is competing in a tournament for the Sparrow-hawk, which he has won twice before. Geraint borrows the old man's rusty armor and, with Enid as his lady, challenges and defeats the Knight of the Sparrow-hawk, winning the prize and pledging his love to Enid.
Chapter 266
VI: Geraint, the Son of Erbin (Continued)
Arthur hunts a stag with his hounds, and the head is awarded to Enid. Geraint returns with the defeated knight Edeyrn, who had insulted a maiden. Geraint marries Enid, and later returns to Cornwall to defend his inheritance, accompanied by many knights.
Chapter 267
Geraint, the Son of Erbin (Continued)
Geraint, having grown accustomed to ease and pleasure, neglects his knightly duties and loses the respect of his court. His wife Enid, overhearing the gossip, inadvertently awakens him with her tears and lament, leading Geraint to suspect her of infidelity. He forces her to accompany him on a perilous journey in her meanest garments, forbidding her to speak. Along the way, they encounter thieves whom Geraint slays, and later he is wounded in a tournament. Enid defies his orders to warn him of danger, and after Geraint is struck down, she defends his honor against an earl who strikes her. Geraint revives, kills the earl, and is rescued by his ally Gwiffert Petit. He recovers, reconciles with Enid, and returns to his kingdom to reign prosperously.
Chapter 268
VIII: Pwyll, Prince of Dyved
Pwyll, Prince of Dyved, sits upon the magical mound Gorsedd Arberth and encounters the beautiful Rhiannon, who reveals she has come to him out of love, fleeing an unwanted marriage. They pledge to meet in a year. At the feast, a suitor named Gawl claims Rhiannon as a boon due to Pwyll's rash promise, but Rhiannon devises a plan to delay the wedding for another year. Pwyll and Rhiannon eventually marry and rule prosperously.
Chapter 269
Branwen, the Daughter of Llyr
Bendigeid Vran, king of Britain, agrees to marry his sister Branwen to Matholch, king of Ireland, to forge an alliance. During the wedding feast, Evnissyen, a half-brother, mutilates Matholch's horses as an insult for not being consulted. Bendigeid Vran compensates Matholch with horses, silver, gold, and a magical cauldron that revives the dead. Branwen suffers mistreatment in Ireland and sends a message to her brother. Bendigeid Vran wades across the sea with his army to rescue her. Peace is brokered by giving the Irish throne to Branwen's son Gwern. During the celebration, Evnissyen throws Gwern into a fire, sparking a battle. The Irish use the cauldron to revive their dead, but Evnissyen sacrifices himself to destroy it, leading to a devastating war.
Chapter 270
Manawyddan
After the death of Pwyll, his son Pryderi inherits Dyved and offers his mother Rhiannon in marriage to Manawyddan, who has returned from war to find his lands seized. The four—Manawyddan, Rhiannon, Pryderi, and Kicva—live in harmony until a magical mist desolates the land, leaving only them. During a hunt, Pryderi enters a mysterious castle and is trapped by a golden bowl. Rhiannon is also caught when she tries to free him. Manawyddan, left alone, attempts farming but his crops are destroyed by mice. He catches one mouse and prepares to hang it, which summons a bishop who reveals himself as Lloyd, the enchanter who cast the spell to avenge Gawl. Lloyd restores Pryderi and Rhiannon, lifts the enchantment, and the land returns to its former prosperity.
Chapter 271
Kilwich and Olwen
Kilwich, son of Kilydd, falls in love with Olwen, daughter of the giant Yspadaden Penkawr, after his stepmother prophesies that he can only marry her. With the help of his cousin King Arthur and his knights, Kilwich confronts the giant, who sets a series of impossible tasks as the price for Olwen's hand. Kilwich accepts the challenge, vowing to overcome each obstacle with Arthur's aid.
Chapter 272
XII: Kilwich and Olwen (Continued)
Arthur's knights continue their quest for the giant Yspadaden Penkawr's treasures. Kay and Bedwyr slay the giant Gwernach by trickery, then seek Mabon son of Modron. Guided by ancient animals (Ousel, Stag, Eagle, Salmon), they find Mabon imprisoned in Gloucester. Arthur's forces attack the castle, Kay breaks through the wall, and Mabon is freed. Later, Gurhyr Gwalstat saves an anthill from fire, and the ants repay him by gathering the required flaxseed. The knights also capture the wolf Gast Rhymhi and her cubs, and encounter the robber Dillus Varwawc.
Chapter 273
Taliesin
Elphin, son of Gwyddno, finds a baby in a leather bag in his father's weir and names him Taliesin. The infant immediately speaks poetry and promises to bring Elphin greater fortune than fish. Taliesin grows up and, when Elphin is imprisoned for boasting that his wife is more virtuous and his bard more skilled than King Maelgan's, Taliesin saves Elphin's wife from disgrace by substituting a maid, then frees Elphin from prison and silences the king's bards with his superior wisdom and magical powers.
Chapter 274
Hero Myths of the British Isles
This chapter explores the heroic myths and legends of the British Isles, focusing on the tales of King Arthur, Sir Launcelot, and other knights of the Round Table, as well as their quests, adventures, and the themes of chivalry and honor.
Chapter 275
Beowulf
The chapter recounts the heroic deeds of Beowulf, a Geatish warrior who first gains renown by slaying the monster Grendel and later Grendel's mother for King Hrothgar of Denmark. After serving as a trusted counselor and becoming king of the Geats, Beowulf faces a fire-dragon in his old age. He defeats the dragon but dies from a poisoned wound, and his followers build a burial cairn on the sea-cliff as he requested.
Chapter 276
Cuchulain, Champion of Ireland
This chapter recounts the legend of Cuchulain, the Irish champion, drawing parallels to the Greek hero Achilles. It describes his divine parentage, his upbringing by King Conor, his marriage to Emer, and his trials to claim the Championship of Ireland. Through tests set by King Ailill and Curoi of Kerry—including facing magic beasts, a dragon, and a beheading challenge—Cuchulain proves his unmatched courage, loyalty, and truth, ultimately being acclaimed the Champion of the Heroes of all Ireland.
Chapter 277
Hereward the Wake
This chapter introduces Hereward the Wake, a Saxon patriot hero from Lincolnshire who flourished around 1070. It describes his role in the Danish attack on Peterborough, his defense of the Isle of Ely against William the Conqueror, and his status as an ideal of Anglo-Saxon manliness. The chapter then recounts a youthful adventure in Cornwall where Hereward kills a giant, rescues a princess, and helps her reunite with her true love, Prince Sigtryg of Waterford, by ambushing the rival bridegroom Haco.
Chapter 278
Robin Hood
This chapter introduces the legendary figure of Robin Hood, an outlaw from the time of King Richard I, who, with his band of merry outlaws, robs from the rich to give to the poor, protecting women and the downtrodden. It recounts the famous archery contest from Sir Walter Scott's Ivanhoe, where Robin, under the alias Locksley, defeats the forester Hubert by splitting his arrow and later splitting a willow wand, winning the prize but refusing to join Prince John's service.
Chapter 279
Legends of Charlemagne
This chapter recounts the legendary exploits of Charlemagne and his paladins, blending historical figures with chivalric romance. It covers the adventures of Orlando, Rinaldo, Rogero, and others, including their battles against Saracens, magical encounters, and themes of love, honor, and betrayal.
Chapter 280
The Peers, or Paladins
This chapter introduces the twelve most illustrious knights of Charlemagne, known as the Peers or Paladins, highlighting their equality and companionship with the king. It lists the most distinguished among them, including Orlando, Rinaldo, Namo, Salomon, Turpin, Astolpho, Ogier, Malagigi, and Florismart, and notes that Charlemagne himself is counted among them, as well as the treacherous Ganelon. The chapter sets the stage for a more detailed introduction of the principal peers, beginning with Orlando.
Chapter 281
Orlando
This chapter recounts the birth and early life of Orlando, son of the knight Milon and Bertha, sister of Charlemagne. Born in a cave in Sutri after his parents' exile, Orlando grows up among peasants, befriends Oliver, and later impresses Charlemagne by stealing food from the royal table. He is pardoned, taken into favor, and becomes a great champion of Christianity.
Chapter 282
Roland and Ferragus
Orlando (Roland) battles the giant Ferragus, whose skin is invulnerable to swords. After a truce, Orlando shows chivalry by providing a pillow for the sleeping giant. Ferragus, grateful, reveals his only vulnerable spot, which Orlando later exploits to kill him. Orlando also wins the sword Durindana from a Saracen warrior, a weapon once owned by Hector of Troy.
Chapter 283
A Roland for an Oliver
Charlemagne besieges Guerin de Montglave's city of Vienne due to a quarrel, but when Marsilius of Spain invades France, Charles agrees to settle the dispute by single combat. Oliver, the youngest grandson of Guerin, is chosen to fight for his family, while Roland represents Charlemagne. After a fierce and evenly matched battle, both warriors are left weaponless and recognize each other, embracing in reconciliation. The combat is declared a draw by Ogier the Dane, and a truce leads to peace, after which Charlemagne and Guerin unite to repel Marsilius.
Chapter 284
Rinaldo
Rinaldo, nephew of Charlemagne and cousin of Orlando, embarks on a quest to subdue the legendary horse Bayard. Guided by the enchanter Malagigi, he finds armor and a horse, then defeats the Saracen knight Isolier before together they confront Bayard. After a fierce struggle, Rinaldo throws the horse, which becomes gentle, and he claims it as his own. The chapter also recounts Rinaldo's earlier banishment from Charlemagne's court, his service to the Saracen king Ivo, and the building of his castle Montalban, before his eventual restoration to favor.
Chapter 285
The Tournament
During the Pentecost feast at Charlemagne's court, Angelica and her brother Argalia arrive with a challenge: any knight who can overthrow Argalia in a joust wins Angelica as a prize, while losers become prisoners. The paladins, enchanted by Angelica's beauty, eagerly accept. Malagigi discovers the plot but is captured by Angelica's magic ring. The jousting begins, with Astolpho and Ferrau both defeated. Ferrau attacks Argalia, but Angelica escapes using her ring. Astolpho acquires the enchanted lance and wins subsequent jousts. Rinaldo and Orlando pursue Angelica into the forest of Arden, where magical fountains alter their affections. Rinaldo later battles a giant and escapes imprisonment.
Chapter 286
The Siege of Albracca
King Gradasso of Sericane invades France to obtain Orlando's sword Durindana and Rinaldo's horse Bayard. Charlemagne sends Rinaldo against him, but Malagigi tricks Rinaldo away. Gradasso captures Charlemagne and his peers, then agrees to release them if he receives Bayard and Durindana. Astolpho defends Bayard in single combat, defeats Gradasso with the enchanted lance, and frees the prisoners. Meanwhile, Orlando, seeking Angelica, drinks from the Cup of Oblivion at the bridge and becomes a prisoner. Astolpho, on his way to find Rinaldo, defeats Sacripant and Florismart, but later flees from Orlando. Florismart drinks the cup and is imprisoned. Angelica, escaping the siege of Albracca by Agrican, meets Flordelis and uses her ring to disenchant Orlando and others, then leads them to relieve Albracca.
Chapter 287
Adventures of Rinaldo and Orlando
Rinaldo, after overcoming a monster, meets the damsel Flordelis and agrees to rescue her lover Florismart from an enchantress. He battles a giant and a griffin to obtain the magical horse Rabican, then becomes embroiled in the war between King Galafron and Angelica. Rinaldo fights Orlando, but their combat is interrupted. Angelica, still loving Rinaldo, sends Orlando to destroy the garden of the enchantress Falerina, while Rinaldo also sets out on the same quest. Orlando defeats a dragon, enters the garden, captures Falerina, slays a siren, and learns that the captives are held by the more powerful enchantress Morgana. Meanwhile, Rinaldo is defeated by the bridge-ward Arridano and thrown into a lake.
Chapter 288
The Invasion of France
King Agramant of Africa convenes his vassals to plan an invasion of France to avenge his father's death. Despite opposition from his wise councillor Sobrino and a prophetic warning from the aged king of the Garamantes, the fiery Rodomont pushes for war. The prophet declares that success depends on winning the young knight Rogero, descended from Hector, who is hidden by the magician Atlantes. The only way to break the enchantments is with Angelica's ring, which the dwarf Brunello steals. Agramant uses the ring to lure Rogero from his retreat, and Rogero joins the expedition. Meanwhile, the traitor Gano conspires with Marsilius of Spain, and Rodomont lands in France. Separately, the Tartar king Mandricardo undertakes a quest for Hector's armor, overcoming a champion, magical harvest beasts, and a serpent, ultimately winning the armor and swearing to take Durindana from Orlando.
Chapter 289
The Invasion of France (Continued)
Mandricardo and Rogero dispute over the right to bear the symbol of the Trojan knight, but Gradasso intervenes claiming prior right to Durindana. Florismart and Flordelis broker a truce, leading the group to seek Orlando. A dwarf then diverts Gradasso and Rogero to rescue a lady from the enchanter Atlantes, who has built a castle to trap Rogero. Meanwhile, Rinaldo, after a vision and punishment by flower-scourging, drinks from the waters of Love and repents his past ingratitude toward Angelica, setting off to seek her. The narrative then returns to Orlando, who helps Angelica escape Albracca and travel to France. In the forest of Arden, Angelica drinks from the fountain of Disdain, and encounters Rinaldo, who now professes love, but she rejects him. Orlando and Rinaldo fight, but Charlemagne separates them and places Angelica under guard. After a Christian defeat, Angelica flees into the forest, where she encounters Sacripant lamenting his love for her. She reveals herself and asks for his aid. Sacripant is then overthrown by a white knight, later revealed to be Bradamante. Sacripant and Angelica continue on, but soon encounter a magnificent horse.
Chapter 290
Bradamante and Rogero
Bradamante, seeking her beloved Rogero, learns from the knight Pinabel that Rogero is imprisoned by the enchanter Atlantes in a magical castle. Despite a summons to return to her army, she resolves to free him. With the help of the treacherous Brunello, she reaches the castle, uses a magic ring to resist Atlantes' enchanted shield, captures him, and frees the prisoners, including Rogero. However, Rogero mounts the Hippogriff and is carried away uncontrollably into the sky, separating the lovers once more.
Chapter 291
Astolpho and the Enchantress
Rogero, freed from Alcina's enchantments by Melissa's intervention, escapes her realm with the help of the magic ring and the shield of Atlantes. Melissa disenchants Alcina's victims, including Astolpho, who is liberated and given a magical horn. Rogero and Astolpho find refuge with the sage Logestilla before parting ways.
Chapter 292
The Orc
Angelica, fleeing her lovers, is tricked by a magician and abandoned on the island of Ebuda, where she is captured to be sacrificed to the sea-monster Orc. Meanwhile, Rogero, riding the Hippogriff, rescues her but is betrayed when she uses a magic ring to disappear. Rogero then encounters a phantom of Bradamante and is lured into the enchanted castle of Atlantes, where many knights are trapped.
Chapter 293
Astolpho's Adventures Continued, and Isabella's Begun
Astolpho, armed with a magic book and horn from the fairy Logestilla, returns to France, defeats the enchanter Atlantes, and frees imprisoned knights including Rogero, Bradamante, and Orlando. Rogero and Bradamante agree to marry if he converts to Christianity. Astolpho acquires the Hippogriff and entrusts Rabican and the golden lance to Bradamante before flying away. Orlando discovers Isabella imprisoned by pirates, rescues her, and later saves Zerbino from execution, reuniting the lovers.
Chapter 294
Medoro
The chapter recounts the story of Medoro, a young Moorish soldier, and his friend Cloridan, who risk their lives to give their prince Dardinel a proper burial. After being discovered by Zerbino's troops, Medoro is wounded but saved by the arrival of Angelica, the Princess of Cathay, who uses her knowledge of healing to nurse him back to health. Angelica, moved by Medoro's devotion and beauty, falls in love with him and marries him, bestowing upon him the sovereignty of her remaining lands.
Chapter 295
Orlando Mad
Orlando, driven mad by the discovery of Angelica's marriage to Medoro, abandons his armor and wreaks havoc across the countryside, tearing up trees and attacking shepherds and animals. Meanwhile, Zerbino and Isabella find Orlando's discarded arms and hang them as a trophy, only for Mandricardo to seize Durindana and defeat Zerbino in combat.
Chapter 296
Zerbino and Isabella
Isabella mourns Zerbino's death and vows fidelity. A hermit consoles her, but they encounter Rodomont, who kills the hermit and forces Isabella to his ruined chapel. To preserve her vow, Isabella tricks Rodomont into beheading her. Rodomont, remorseful, builds a bridge and tower in their honor, challenging all who cross. Orlando, in his madness, fights Rodomont and both fall into the river. Later, Florismart and others are defeated at the bridge until Bradamante, using Astolpho's golden lance, overthrows Rodomont and frees the prisoners. Meanwhile, Rogero and Marphisa discover their kinship and plan to embrace Christianity.
Chapter 297
Astolpho in Abyssinia
Astolpho, riding the Hippogriff, arrives in Abyssinia and helps King Senapus, who is plagued by Harpies. He drives them away with his horn and seals them in a cave. Then he ascends to the terrestrial paradise, where he meets St. John, Enoch, and Elijah. St. John tells him of Orlando's madness and takes him to the moon in a chariot to retrieve Orlando's lost sense, which is stored in a vial among many other lost things.
Chapter 298
The War in Africa
Astolpho, guided by St. John, uses a magical plant to restore the sight of Senapus, king of Abyssinia, and secures an army to attack the Saracens in Africa. He captures the South wind in a bag to safely cross the desert, and miraculously creates horses from rocks to form a cavalry. Astolpho lays siege to Agramant's capital, Biserta. Meanwhile, Agramant proposes a single combat to decide the war, but the truce is broken by Melissa disguised as Rodomont, leading to a general battle. Orlando, still mad, swims to Africa and arrives at Astolpho's camp.
Chapter 299
Rogero and Bradamante
Rogero, distraught over losing Bradamante to Prince Leo, seeks combat with the prince but ends up aiding the Bulgarians against the Greeks. He is captured and imprisoned by Theodora. Bradamante secures a boon from Charlemagne that she must only marry someone who can defeat her in combat. Prince Leo, unaware of Rogero's identity, befriends him and asks for his help to win Bradamante. Rogero, in disguise, fights Bradamante to a draw, then reveals his identity. Leo, moved by Rogero's honor, renounces his claim and reunites Rogero with Bradamante. Rogero is offered the Bulgarian crown and marries Bradamante with her parents' consent.
Chapter 300
The Battle of Roncesvalles
Charlemagne's campaign in Spain leads to a treacherous plot by Gan (Ganelon), who conspires with King Marsilius to ambush Orlando and his small band at Roncesvalles. Despite warnings, Orlando refuses to summon aid, and a fierce battle ensues. Oliver is mortally wounded, and Orlando blows his horn to alert Charlemagne, then dies after a final stand. Charlemagne arrives too late, and Gan is imprisoned.
Chapter 301
Rinaldo and Bayard
Charlemagne, grieving the loss of his knights at Roncesvalles, is again misled by his son Charlot into persecuting Rinaldo and his brothers, who flee to Montalban. After a siege, Rinaldo loses his horse Bayard to thieves, but his cousin Malagigi, disguised as a beggar, helps him recover the horse and rescue his brothers through a clever ruse at a court festival.
Chapter 302
Death of Rinaldo
The chapter recounts the final days of Rinaldo, from his humble life as a pilgrim and laborer in Cologne to his martyrdom at the hands of jealous workmen. It also includes the earlier episode of the siege of his castle, the sacrifice of his beloved horse Bayard to secure peace with King Charles, and the miraculous transport of his body to Dortmund, where he becomes a patron saint.
Chapter 303
Huon of Bordeaux
Charlemagne, feeling the burden of age, proposes to abdicate in favor of his sons Charlot and Lewis, but the barons oppose this due to Charlot's infamous character. Amaury of Hauteville, a secret partisan of Charlot, suggests that Charlot be given the duchy of Guienne, whose young duke Huon has not yet paid homage. Duke Namo advises summoning Huon and his brother Girard to court. The Duchess of Bordeaux prepares her sons, who visit the Abbot of Cluny en route. Amaury and Charlot ambush the brothers in the wood of Montlery; in the ensuing fight, Huon kills Charlot in self-defense. Amaury falsely accuses Huon of murder, but Huon challenges him to a judicial combat. Huon defeats Amaury, who treacherously stabs him after begging mercy, leading Huon to kill him. Despite Huon's acquittal, Charlemagne, still grieving, imposes harsh conditions for pardon: Huon must go to the Sultan Gaudisso's court, behead the most illustrious guest, kiss the princess three times, and demand the Sultan's white beard hairs and four grinders. Huon accepts and, after intercessions, agrees to first seek absolution from the Pope in Rome.
Chapter 304
Huon of Bordeaux (Continued)
Huon, guided by a dream and the magic cup, travels to Bagdad where he rescues the ungrateful Prince of Hyrcania from a lion. He learns from an old woman that the princess Clarimunda, forced to marry the prince, also had a prophetic dream. At the wedding feast, Huon delivers Charlemagne's message by kissing Clarimunda, then kills the prince when attacked. He is imprisoned but aided by Clarimunda and Sherasmin, yet refuses to flee without completing his mission. A courier arrives with a death sentence for Sultan Gaudisso, changing the situation.
Chapter 305
Huon of Bordeaux (Continued)
Huon, guided by a dream and the magic cup, travels to Bagdad where he rescues the ungrateful Prince of Hyrcania from a lion. He learns from an old woman that the princess Clarimunda, forced to marry the prince, also had a prophetic dream. At the wedding feast, Huon delivers Charlemagne's message by kissing Clarimunda, then kills the prince when attacked. He is imprisoned but aided by Clarimunda and Sherasmin, yet refuses to flee without completing his mission. A courier arrives with a death sentence for Sultan Gaudisso, changing the situation.
Chapter 306
Ogier, the Dane
Ogier, son of Geoffroy, the first Christian king of Denmark, is blessed at birth by six fairy ladies, including Morgana, who grants him invincibility and a visit to Avalon. He is given as a hostage to Charlemagne after his father refuses homage. Ogier grows up at court, but after his father's renewed defiance, Charlemagne spares him at Duke Namo's request. When Saracens threaten Rome, Charlemagne marches to Italy. Ogier rescues Charlemagne in battle, but later is captured by the exiled King Dannemont. Carahue, a Saracen king, surrenders himself to Charlemagne to atone for Ogier's capture. Ogier is eventually freed, knighted by Charlemagne, and receives the magical sword Cortana from Morgana. Charlot, the emperor's son, grows jealous and plots treason against Ogier.
Chapter 307
Ogier, the Dane (Continued)
Ogier, after many adventures including a war against Saracens and a sojourn with the fairy Morgana in Avalon, returns to Charlemagne's court to face the Saracen champion Bruhier in single combat. Bruhier possesses a healing balm from Joseph of Arimathea, making him nearly invincible, but Ogier prays for divine aid.
Chapter 308
Ogier, the Dane (Continued)
Ogier, after many adventures including a war against Saracens and a sojourn with the fairy Morgana in Avalon, returns to Charlemagne's court to face the Saracen champion Bruhier in single combat. Bruhier possesses a healing balm from Joseph of Arimathea, making him nearly invincible, but Ogier prays for divine aid.
Chapter 309
Glossary
A reference section defining key terms, characters, and concepts from the book.
Chapter 310
A
This chapter serves as a glossary or index of mythological, legendary, and historical figures, places, and concepts, providing brief definitions and etymological notes for each entry from 'Abdalrahman' to 'Athamas'.
Chapter 311
B
This chapter provides an alphabetical listing of mythological, legendary, and historical figures, places, and concepts, including deities, heroes, and locations from Greek, Roman, Norse, Celtic, and other traditions.
Chapter 312
C
This chapter provides an alphabetical listing of mythological, legendary, and historical figures, places, and concepts from classical and medieval traditions, including entries on Cadmus, Circe, Charlemagne, Camelot, and many others.
Chapter 313
D
This chapter provides a glossary of mythological, legendary, and historical figures and places, including Daedalus, Danaë, Daphne, Dardanus, Diana, Dido, and others, with brief descriptions of their roles and stories.
Chapter 314
E
This chapter provides brief definitions and mythological descriptions for various entries starting with the letter 'E', including figures such as Echo, Enid, Eurydice, and Excalibur, as well as places, concepts, and objects from Greek, Roman, Norse, and Arthurian legend.
Chapter 315
F
This chapter provides a glossary of mythological and legendary figures, places, and concepts beginning with the letter F, including giants, enchantresses, Norse and Roman deities, and knights from the Carolingian and Arthurian cycles.
Chapter 316
G
This chapter provides an alphabetical listing of mythological, legendary, and historical figures, places, and concepts beginning with the letter 'G', including entries on Gaea, Galahad, Gawain, Geraint, the Golden Fleece, the Gorgons, the Holy Graal, Guenevere, and many others from Greek, Roman, Arthurian, Norse, and other traditions.
Chapter 317
H
This chapter provides a glossary of mythological, legendary, and historical figures, places, and concepts beginning with the letter H, including entries on gods, heroes, monsters, and locations from Greek, Roman, Norse, Egyptian, and medieval traditions.
Chapter 318
I
This chapter is a glossary of mythological and legendary figures, places, and concepts, providing brief definitions and contexts for entries from Iapetus to Ixion.
Chapter 319
J
This chapter provides brief entries on various mythological, legendary, and historical figures and places, including Janiculum, Janus, Jason, Joseph of Arimathea, Jotunheim, Jove, Joyous Garde, Juggernaut, Juno, Jupiter, Jupiter Capitolinus, and Justice.
Chapter 320
K
This chapter provides brief entries for various figures and places beginning with the letter K, including characters from Arthurian legend, Hindu mythology, and other traditions.
Chapter 321
L
This chapter provides an alphabetical listing of mythological and legendary figures, places, and concepts beginning with the letter 'L', including entries on the Labyrinth, Laocoön, Launcelot, and other notable characters from Greek, Roman, Norse, and Arthurian traditions.
Chapter 322
M
This chapter serves as a glossary of mythological, legendary, and historical figures, places, and concepts beginning with the letter 'M', including entries from Greek, Roman, Norse, Celtic, and Arthurian traditions, as well as figures from medieval romance and world mythology.
Chapter 323
N
This chapter provides a glossary of mythological and legendary figures, places, and concepts beginning with the letter N, including entries on Naiads, Narcissus, Neptune, the Nibelungen Hoard, Niobe, the Norns, and Nymphs.
Chapter 324
O
This chapter provides a glossary of mythological and legendary figures, places, and concepts beginning with the letter 'O', including gods, heroes, nymphs, and literary references from Greek, Norse, Celtic, and medieval traditions.
Chapter 325
P
This chapter provides an alphabetical listing of mythological, legendary, and historical figures, places, and concepts beginning with the letter 'P', including brief descriptions of their roles and stories.
Chapter 326
Q
This chapter defines the term 'Quirinus,' a war god derived from the Latin word 'quiris' (lance or spear), and notes the tradition that Quirinus is identified with Romulus, the founder of Rome.
Chapter 327
R
This chapter provides brief entries for various mythological, legendary, and historical figures, places, and concepts, including the horse Rabican, the Norse Ragnarok, Arthurian items like Rhongomyant and Ron, and knights such as Rinaldo, Rodomont, and Rogero.
Chapter 328
S
This chapter provides an alphabetical listing of mythological and legendary figures, places, and concepts beginning with the letter 'S', including entries from Greek, Roman, Norse, Hindu, and Arthurian traditions.
Chapter 329
T
This chapter provides brief entries on various mythological, historical, and geographical names beginning with the letter T, including figures from Greek, Roman, Norse, and Arthurian legend, as well as places and concepts.
Chapter 330
U
This chapter provides brief definitions and mythological or historical references for entries beginning with the letter U, including figures from Greek, Norse, and Arthurian legend, such as Ulysses, Urdur, Uther, and Uwaine.
Chapter 331
V
This chapter provides a glossary of mythological, historical, and cultural terms, including figures from Norse, Hindu, Greek, Roman, and Arthurian traditions, as well as geographical and literary references.
Chapter 332
W
This chapter provides brief definitions and mythological references for terms beginning with the letter 'W', including the constellation Wain, the Rhine-daughters Wellgunda and Woglinda, the Norse god Woden (Odin), the story of the Wooden Horse at Troy, and the Old High German form Wotan.
Chapter 333
Chapter X
The chapter introduces Xanthus, a river of Asia Minor, likely setting the stage for mythological or historical events associated with this location.
Chapter 334
Y
This chapter provides brief entries on mythological and legendary figures and places beginning with the letter Y, including the Hindu god Yama, the Norse tree Yggdrasil, the giant Ymir, and several characters from Arthurian legend such as Ynywl, Yserone, and Yspadaden Penkawr.
Chapter 335
Z
This chapter provides brief entries on various mythological and historical figures and texts, including Zoroaster, Zerbino, and other classical and Persian references.
Chapter 336
List of Illustrations
This chapter provides a list of illustrations for the book, including a genealogical chart showing the descent of the gods.
Chapter 337
Endnotes
This chapter consists of endnotes providing citations, translations, and commentary on classical and medieval references throughout the book, including quotes from Virgil, Ovid, and other sources, as well as notes on Arthurian legend, Norse mythology, and literary allusions.

Publishers’ Preface

Author's Preface

Bulfinch's Mythology

Stories of Gods and Heroes

Introduction

Roman Divinities

Prometheus and Pandora

III: Apollo and Daphne—Pyramus and Thisbe—Cephalus and Procris

Apollo and Daphne

Pyramus and Thisbe

Cephalus and Procris

IV: Juno and Her Rivals, Io and Callisto—Diana and Actaeon—Latona and the Rustics

Callisto

Diana and Actaeon

Latona and the Rustics

Phaëton

Midas—Baucis and Philemon

Baucis and Philemon

Proserpine—Glaucus and Scylla

Glaucus and Scylla

VIII: Pygmalion—Dryope—Venus and Adonis—Apollo and Hyacinthus

Dryope

Venus and Adonis

Apollo and Hyacinthus

Ceyx and Halcyone: or, the Halcyon Birds

Vertumnus and Pomona

Cupid and Psyche

Cadmus—The Myrmidons

The Myrmidons

XIII: Nisus and Scylla—Echo and Narcissus—Clytie—Hero and Leander

Nisus and Scylla

Echo and Narcissus

Clytie

Hero and Leander

XIV: Minerva—Niobe

Minerva

Niobe

XV: The Graeae or Gray-Maids—Perseus—Medusa—Atlas—Andromeda

The Graeae and the Gorgons

Perseus and Medusa

Perseus and Atlas

The Sea-Monster

The Wedding Feast

Monsters

Giants, Sphinx, Pegasus and Chimaera, Centaurs, Griffin, and Pygmies

The Sphinx

Pegasus and the Chimaera

The Centaurs

The Pygmies

The Griffin, or Gryphon

The Golden Fleece—Medea

The Golden Fleece

Medea and Aeson

Meleager and Atalanta

Atalanta

XIX: Hercules—Hebe and Ganymede

Hercules

Hebe and Ganymede

Theseus—Daedalus—Castor and Pollux

Theseus

Olympic and Other Games

Daedalus

Castor and Pollux

Bacchus—Ariadne

Bacchus

Ariadne

The Rural Deities—Erisichthon—Rhoecus—The Water Deities—Camenae—Winds

The Rural Deities

Erisichthon

Rhoecus

The Water Deities

Neptune

Amphitrite

Nereus and Doris

Triton and Proteus

Thetis

Leucothea and Palaemon

The Camenae

The Winds

XXIII: Achelous and Hercules—Admetus and Alcestis—Antigone—Penelope