The Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers · Chapters
Chapters explained
Chapter companions for The Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers by Diogenes Laërtius.
Chapter 1
The Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers
This chapter provides an overview of the lives, teachings, and successions of eminent Greek philosophers, covering figures from the Ionian and Italian schools, including Thales, Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, and others, with anecdotes about their character, wisdom, and interactions.
Chapter 2
Book I: The Origins and Divisions of Philosophy
This chapter introduces the various schools of philosophy, their founders, and the divisions of philosophy into natural, ethical, and dialectic branches. It also provides a detailed account of Thales and Solon, including Solon's political reforms, his recapture of Salamis, his encounter with Croesus, and his letters to Periander and Epimenides.
Chapter 3
Thales
This chapter introduces Thales of Miletus, often regarded as the first philosopher and one of the Seven Sages. It covers his lineage, his pioneering work in astronomy and geometry, his political wisdom in advising Miletus against an alliance with Croesus, his ethical aphorisms, and his natural philosophy positing water as the fundamental principle. The chapter also discusses the varying accounts of his life, writings, and death, as well as the broader traditions surrounding the Seven Sages.
Chapter 4
Solon
This chapter details the life and reforms of Solon, the Athenian lawgiver. It covers his introduction of debt relief (the seisachtheia), his recapture of Salamis through a ruse of feigned madness, his refusal to become tyrant despite popular support, his warnings against Pisistratus, and his subsequent voluntary exile. The chapter also includes his letters, poems, maxims, and his famous encounter with Croesus regarding happiness.
Chapter 5
Chilo
This chapter details the life, sayings, and death of Chilo, a Lacedaemonian sage and one of the Seven Sages. It recounts his political reforms as ephor, his aphorisms on ethics and self-control, his advice to Periander, his famous saying 'Suretyship, and then destruction,' and his death from joy at his son's Olympic victory.
Chapter 6
Pittacus
This chapter details the life, deeds, and sayings of Pittacus of Mitylene, one of the Seven Sages. It covers his rise to power as a general and tyrant, his wise governance and resignation, his legal reforms (including double punishment for drunken crimes), his celebrated aphorisms, and his correspondence with Croesus. The chapter also includes anecdotes about his marriage, his physical appearance mocked by Alcaeus, and his merciful release of enemies.
Chapter 7
Bias
This chapter recounts the life, wisdom, and death of Bias of Priene, one of the Seven Sages. It highlights his acts of virtue, such as ransoming and educating captured maidens, his clever diplomacy with King Alyattes during the siege of Priene, his ethical approach to rhetoric, and his many aphorisms on prudence, piety, and human nature. The chapter concludes with his peaceful death in old age after pleading a case, and his burial with honors.
Chapter 8
Cleobulus
This chapter details the life, sayings, and legacy of Cleobulus of Lindus, one of the Seven Sages. It covers his lineage, his studies in Egypt, his poetic and philosophical works, including the disputed epigram on Midas and an enigma about the year. The chapter also collects his moral and practical apothegms on topics such as friendship, marriage, education, and self-control, and concludes with his letter to Solon and his epitaph.
Chapter 9
Periander
This chapter details the life and tyranny of Periander of Corinth, a ruler of the Heraclid family. It recounts his rise to power, his violent acts including the killing of his wife Melissa and the burning of his concubines, his conflict with his son Lycophron, and his eventual death. The text also explores his philosophical sayings, his correspondence with other wise men, and the debate over whether there were two men named Periander—one a tyrant and one a sage.
Chapter 10
Anacharsis, the Scythian
Anacharsis, a Scythian prince with a Greek mother, travels to Athens to learn Greek customs, becomes a close friend of Solon, and returns to Scythia where he is killed by his brother for attempting to reform Scythian traditions. The chapter collects his witty sayings, his inventions (anchor, potter's wheel), and his observations on Greek life.
Chapter 11
Myson
This chapter recounts the life and character of Myson, one of the seven wise men, including his obscure origins, the Delphic oracle's pronouncement of his wisdom, his misanthropic habits, and his death at age ninety-seven.
Chapter 12
Epimenides
This chapter recounts the life and legends of Epimenides, a Cretan philosopher and prophet from Gnossus. It describes his miraculous fifty-seven-year sleep in a cave, his purification of Athens during a plague, his long life, his writings on theology and mythology, and his prophecies. It also includes a letter attributed to him advising Solon about tyranny in Athens.
Chapter 13
Pherecydes
This chapter recounts the life, teachings, and legendary deeds of Pherecydes of Syros, an early Greek philosopher and theologian. It describes his prophecies, his death by the 'lousy disease,' his relationship with Pythagoras, and his contributions to natural philosophy and theology. The chapter also includes a letter from Pherecydes to Thales and discusses his legacy as one of the Seven Sages.
Chapter 14
Book II
This chapter covers the successors of Euclides and the Megaric school, including Eubulides, Alexinus, Euphantus, and Diodorus Cronus, along with their dialectical arguments. It then transitions to Aristippus of Cyrene, his hedonistic philosophy, his interactions with Socrates, Diogenes, and Dionysius, and his ability to adapt to circumstances. Finally, it discusses Archelaus, the natural philosopher who taught Socrates, and Socrates himself, his origins, his shift from natural to moral philosophy, and his condemnation.
Chapter 15
Anaximander
Anaximander, a Milesian philosopher, posited the Infinite as the primary principle of all things, with the whole being unchangeable though parts change. He described a spherical Earth at the center, the moon's light as borrowed from the sun, and the sun as pure fire. He invented the gnomon, sundials, clocks, a map of the earth and sea, and a globe. His work was known to Apollodorus, who recorded his age and death around the time of Polycrates.
Chapter 16
Anaximenes
Anaximenes, a Milesian pupil of Anaximander (and some say Parmenides), posited air and the Infinite as the principles of all things, and held that stars move around the earth. He wrote in pure Ionian dialect, lived during the 63rd Olympiad, and died around the time of the fall of Sardis. The chapter includes two letters attributed to him: one recounting Thales' accidental death, and another urging Pythagoras to remain in Crotona while lamenting Milesian oppression and the threat of Median war.
Chapter 17
Anaxagoras
Anaxagoras of Clazomenae, a pupil of Anaximenes, was the first philosopher to attribute mind (Nous) to matter, arranging the cosmos from primordial chaos. He renounced his wealth for natural philosophy, famously claiming he was born to contemplate the sun, moon, and heaven. He taught that the sun was a fiery mass of iron, the moon had hills and ravines, and all things were composed of homoeomeries (similar parts). He was tried for impiety—defended by Pericles—and either fined and banished or condemned to death in absentia. He died in Lampsacus, where he requested an annual holiday for children.
Chapter 18
Archelaus
This chapter discusses Archelaus, a pupil of Anaxagoras and teacher of Socrates, who is credited with bringing natural philosophy from Ionia to Athens and bridging the transition to ethical philosophy. It outlines his theories on generation, the elements, the origin of animals and humans, and his views on justice and morality as products of law rather than nature.
Chapter 19
Socrates
This chapter recounts the life, character, and death of Socrates, detailing his parentage, early influences (including Anaxagoras and Archelaus), his shift from natural philosophy to moral philosophy, his military service, his trial and execution, and the immediate aftermath. It also lists his principal disciples and the Socratic schools that followed.
Chapter 20
Xenophon
This chapter details the life of Xenophon, an Athenian citizen and follower of Socrates. It covers his initial encounter with Socrates, his military expedition with Cyrus, his subsequent banishment from Athens, his life in Scillus and later Corinth, and his death at an advanced age. The text also highlights his literary works, his rivalry with Plato, and his reputation for piety, horsemanship, and tactical skill.
Chapter 21
Aeschines
This chapter details the life and works of Aeschines, a devoted follower of Socrates, his alleged plagiarism, his poverty, his time in Sicily with Dionysius, and his reputation as a skilled orator. It also lists the seven dialogues attributed to him and discusses the controversies surrounding their authenticity.
Chapter 22
Aristippus
This chapter focuses on Aristippus of Cyrene, a pupil of Socrates who became a Sophist and founded the Cyrenaic school of philosophy. It details his character, his interactions with Dionysius and Diogenes, and his hedonistic yet pragmatic philosophy. The chapter also covers the later Cyrenaic schools—the Hegesiacs, Annicereans, and Theodoreans—and their variations on pleasure as the chief good.
Chapter 23
Phaedo
This chapter recounts the life of Phaedo of Elis, a Eupatrid who was enslaved after the subjugation of his country and ransomed by Socrates at the urging of Alcibiades or Crito. After his liberation, Phaedo studied philosophy as a free man and wrote several dialogues, though some are disputed. The chapter also traces the succession of his school, which was initially called the Eliac school and later the Eretrian school under Menedemus.
Chapter 24
Euclides
This chapter introduces Euclides of Megara, founder of the Megaric school, and traces his philosophical lineage and successors, including Eubulides, Alexinus, Euphantus, Diodorus Cronus, and Stilpo. It covers Euclides' teachings on the chief good as unity, his dialectical methods, and the contentious reputation of his school. The narrative also includes anecdotes about later philosophers, their rivalries, and their fates.
Chapter 25
Stilpo
This chapter details the life, teachings, and character of Stilpo of Megara, a prominent philosopher of the Megaric school known for his rhetorical skill, acumen, and ability to attract disciples from other schools. It recounts his interactions with rulers like Ptolemy Soter and Demetrius, his witty exchanges with Crates and others, his controversial views on the gods, and his death at an advanced age after drinking wine.
Chapter 26
Crito
This chapter introduces Crito, an Athenian who was a devoted friend and benefactor of Socrates, ensuring he never lacked necessities. Crito's sons were all pupils of Socrates. The chapter lists the titles of seventeen dialogues written by Crito, covering topics such as ethics, politics, law, and knowledge.
Chapter 27
Simon
Simon, an Athenian leather-cutter, recorded Socrates' conversations in his workshop, creating the first Socratic dialogues known as 'leathern dialogues.' He authored thirty-three dialogues on various topics and famously refused Pericles' offer of support to preserve his freedom of speech.
Chapter 28
Glauco
This chapter provides a brief account of Glauco, an Athenian philosopher, listing the nine dialogues attributed to him that are considered genuine, while noting that thirty-two others circulating under his name are spurious.
Chapter 29
Simias
This chapter introduces Simias of Thebes, a philosopher credited with twenty-three dialogues covering a wide range of topics including wisdom, music, philosophy, government, and the soul.
Chapter 30
Cebes
A brief entry on Cebes of Thebes, noting that three dialogues are attributed to him: The Tablet, the Seventh, and the Phrynichus.
Chapter 31
Menedemus
This chapter describes Menedemus, a disciple of Colotes of Lampsacus, known for his extreme superstition and peculiar attire. It then discusses the common doctrines of the Cynics, including their rejection of logic and natural philosophy, their focus on ethics, simple living, and the teachability and permanence of virtue, drawing comparisons to the Stoics.
Chapter 32
Book III: The Life, Will, and Legacy of Plato
This chapter details the final affairs of Plato, including his will, the epigrams on his tomb, and a list of his disciples. It also discusses the nature of his dialogues, his travels to Sicily, his interactions with Dionysius, and various anecdotes about his character and sayings. The chapter concludes with an account of his death and burial in the Academy.
Chapter 33
Plato
This chapter recounts the life, travels, and philosophical contributions of Plato, including his three visits to Sicily, his interactions with Dionysius, his escape aided by Archytas, his refusal to engage in state politics, his pioneering work in dialogue and dialectics, his will, death, and the epigrams on his tomb.
Chapter 34
Book IV: The Successors of Plato
This chapter covers the lives and teachings of Plato's successors, Speusippus and Xenocrates, as well as Polemo, highlighting their characters, philosophical contributions, and anecdotes that illustrate their virtues and flaws.
Chapter 35
Speusippus
This chapter covers the life and character of Speusippus, Plato's nephew and successor as head of the Academy. It describes his eight-year leadership, his passionate and pleasure-seeking nature, his innovations in philosophical method, his decline into paralysis and despair, and his eventual suicide. The chapter also notes his writings, his relationship with Diogenes, and his invitation to Xenocrates to succeed him.
Chapter 36
Xenocrates
This chapter details the life and character of Xenocrates, a pupil of Plato known for his solemnity, continence, and incorruptibility. It recounts anecdotes illustrating his resistance to temptation, his trustworthiness, his disdain for bribery, and his philosophical demeanor, as well as his succession of Speusippus as head of the Academy and his death at an advanced age.
Chapter 37
Polemo
Polemo, son of Philostratus, was an Athenian who in his youth was extremely intemperate and profligate, but after hearing Xenocrates speak on temperance while drunk, he reformed and became a devoted philosopher, eventually succeeding Xenocrates as head of the school. He adopted a rigorous moral system, remaining calm even when bitten by a mad dog or amid city confusion, and emphasized action over dialectic. He was honored in Athens, imitated Xenocrates, loved Sophocles, and died of decline at an old age.
Chapter 38
Crates
This chapter recounts the life and teachings of Crates of Thebes, a prominent Cynic philosopher who renounced his wealth for a life of poverty and philosophy. It details his eccentric behaviors, witty sayings, and interactions with figures like Demetrius Phalereus and Menedemus, emphasizing his commitment to self-discipline, endurance of reproach, and disdain for material possessions.
Chapter 39
Crantor
Crantor, a native of Soli, came to Athens and studied under Xenocrates alongside Polemo. He left behind 30,000 lines of writings, some attributed to Arcesilaus. He admired Polemo for his balanced speech, and during an illness he retired to the temple of Aesculapius, attracting followers who thought he intended to start a school. After recovering, he became a pupil of Polemo and was greatly admired. He bequeathed his property to Arcesilaus and wrote poems sealed in the temple of Minerva. He admired Homer and Euripides, coined novel expressions, and his most admired work is his book on Mourning. He died of dropsy before Polemo and Crates.
Chapter 40
Arcesilaus
This chapter details the life and philosophy of Arcesilaus, the founder of the Middle Academy, who pioneered suspension of judgment and arguing both sides of a question. It covers his education under various teachers, his succession to the head of the Academy after Crates, his character, witty sayings, and his death from excessive drinking at age 75.
Chapter 41
Bion
This chapter recounts the life, character, and philosophical journey of Bion of Borysthenes, including his humble and scandalous origins, his education under various philosophical schools (Academy, Cynics, Theodorean, Peripatetic), his witty and often cynical sayings, his theatrical and self-serving behavior, and his eventual deathbed conversion to superstition and repentance for his earlier atheism.
Chapter 42
Lacydes
Lacydes of Cyrene, founder of the New Academy, succeeded Arcesilaus. Known for his gravity, industriousness, and sociable nature, he managed his household with a clever sealing trick that his servants eventually outwitted. He taught in the Academy's garden laid out by King Attalus, called the Lacydeum, and resigned his school to Telicles and Evander. He died of paralysis from drinking in the 134th Olympiad, having led his school for twenty-six years.
Chapter 43
Carneades
This chapter details the life and character of Carneades, the eminent Academic philosopher from Cyrene. It describes his deep study of Stoic works, especially those of Chrysippus, his focus on ethics over natural philosophy, his powerful oratory, his eccentric habits, his fear of death, and his eventual death at age 85. It also notes that he left no writings of his own, only letters, and that his most famous disciple was Clitomachus.
Chapter 44
Clitomachus
This chapter introduces Clitomachus, a Carthaginian philosopher originally named Asdrubal, who came to Athens at age forty, studied under Carneades, and succeeded him as head of the Academy. He wrote over four hundred books and engaged with Academic, Peripatetic, and Stoic doctrines. The chapter also transitions to the Peripatetic school founded by Aristotle.
Chapter 45
Book V
This chapter details the extensive catalog of writings by Theophrastus, followed by his will and the life of Demetrius of Phalerum, including his political career, fall from grace, and philosophical sayings.
Chapter 46
Aristotle
This chapter provides a comprehensive account of Aristotle's life, death, works, and philosophical doctrines. It includes details about his birth, his twenty-year association with Plato, his time at the court of Hermias, his tutorship of Alexander the Great, his founding of the Lyceum, his flight to Chalcis, and his death at age 63. The chapter also lists his extensive writings, outlines his division of philosophy into practical and theoretical branches, and summarizes his views on the criterion of truth, the chief good, and the components of happiness.
Chapter 47
Theophrastus
This chapter details the life, character, and legacy of Theophrastus, the successor to Aristotle as head of the Peripatetic school. It covers his origins in Eresus, his education under Leucippus, Plato, and Aristotle, his acumen as a teacher attracting up to two thousand students, his legal troubles under the law of Sophocles, and his death at age eighty-five. The chapter also includes a collection of his apothegms, a vast catalog of his writings, and the text of his will.
Chapter 48
Strato
This chapter details the life, works, and will of Strato of Lampsacus, the second successor to Theophrastus as head of the Peripatetic school. Known as 'the Natural Philosopher,' he was renowned for his deep study of natural philosophy, tutored Ptolemy Philadelphus, and authored numerous treatises on topics ranging from kingship to dreams. The chapter also includes his will, which bequeaths his school and books to Lycon, and lists several other individuals named Strato.
Chapter 49
Lycon
This chapter details the life, character, and will of Lycon, a Peripatetic philosopher known for his eloquence, educational methods, and devotion to physical fitness. It includes his sayings, his relationship with kings, his rivalry with Hieronymus, and the detailed disposition of his property, including provisions for friends, servants, and the continuation of his school.
Chapter 50
Demetrius
This chapter details the life, political career, writings, and death of Demetrius of Phalerum, a Peripatetic philosopher and statesman who governed Athens for ten years, was honored with numerous statues, and later fell from favor, dying in exile in Egypt after being imprisoned by Ptolemy Philadelphus.
Chapter 51
Heraclides
This chapter details the life, works, and death of Heraclides of Pontus, a wealthy philosopher who studied under Speusippus, the Pythagoreans, Plato, and Aristotle. Known for his delicate attire and noble demeanor, he authored numerous dialogues on ethics, physics, grammar, music, rhetoric, and history. The chapter recounts his attempt to fake his own death and deification using a serpent, which was exposed, and an alternative account of his death involving bribery of the Pythian oracle, a golden crown, and a serpent bite. It also mentions accusations of plagiarism and forgery against him, and lists fourteen other men named Heraclides.
Chapter 52
Book VI: The Cynics and the Rise of Stoicism
This chapter explores the Cynic school of philosophy, its doctrines, and its key figures, particularly Antisthenes and Diogenes. It details the Cynic emphasis on virtue as the sole good, rejection of logic and natural philosophy, and simple living. The chapter also traces the transition from Cynicism to Stoicism, with Zeno of Citium as a disciple of Crates, and highlights Antisthenes as the founder of the Cynic school and a precursor to Stoic thought.
Chapter 53
Antisthenes
This chapter details the life, teachings, and legacy of Antisthenes, the Athenian philosopher who became a pupil of Socrates and founded the Cynic school. It covers his background, his emphasis on virtue and labor, his sharp wit and apothegms, his role in the development of Stoicism, and his extensive writings.
Chapter 54
Diogenes
This chapter recounts the life, witty sayings, and philosophical stance of Diogenes of Sinope, the Cynic philosopher. It includes his sharp retorts to figures like Plato, Alexander the Great, and Anaximenes, his disdain for luxury and social conventions, and the circumstances of his death and legacy.
Chapter 55
Monimus
Monimus, a Syracusan slave of a Corinthian money-changer, becomes a pupil of Diogenes after feigning madness to escape his master. He also follows Crates the Cynic and gains renown, even being mentioned by the comic poet Menander. He is known for despising glory and seeking truth, teaching that all opinion is vanity.
Chapter 56
Onesicritus
This chapter introduces Onesicritus, a disciple of Diogenes, and compares him to Xenophon in terms of their military expeditions and literary works. It also mentions other pupils of Diogenes, including Menander, Hegesaeus, and Philiscus.
Chapter 57
Crates
This chapter recounts the life and teachings of Crates of Thebes, a prominent Cynic philosopher who renounced his wealth for a life of poverty and philosophy. It details his eccentric behaviors, witty sayings, and interactions with figures like Demetrius Phalereus and Menedemus, emphasizing his commitment to self-discipline, endurance of reproach, and disdain for material possessions.
Chapter 58
Metrocles
Metrocles, brother of Hipparchia, initially studied under Theophrastus but fell into despair after a perceived disgrace during a lecture. Crates consoled him, convincing him that natural bodily functions are not shameful, and Metrocles became Crates' pupil, burning his previous writings. He became a distinguished philosopher, taught several pupils, and died by suffocation at an advanced age.
Chapter 59
Hipparchia
Hipparchia, sister of Metrocles and a native of Maronea, is so captivated by the doctrines and character of Crates that she rejects all wealthy suitors and insists on marrying him. Despite Crates' attempts to dissuade her by displaying his poverty, she persists, adopts his dress and habits, and lives publicly as his wife. She famously debates Theodorus the Atheist at a banquet, using a sophism to defend her choice of philosophy over weaving. The chapter also notes Crates' philosophical writings and his death in Boeotia.
Chapter 60
Menippus
This chapter recounts the life of Menippus, a Cynic philosopher of Phoenician descent who was born a slave but later became wealthy through usury, only to lose everything and die by suicide. It also notes that his writings were humorous and sometimes attributed to others, and lists several other men named Menippus.
Chapter 61
Menedemus
This chapter describes Menedemus, a disciple of Colotes of Lampsacus, known for his extreme superstition and peculiar attire. It then discusses the common doctrines of the Cynics, including their rejection of logic and natural philosophy, their focus on ethics, simple living, and the teachability and permanence of virtue, drawing comparisons to the Stoics.
Chapter 62
Book VII: The Stoic Doctrine of Virtue and Indifferents
This chapter presents a detailed exposition of Stoic ethics, including the nature of virtue and vice, the classification of goods and indifferents, and the sufficiency of virtue for happiness. It contrasts Stoic views with those of the Peripatetics and includes specific doctrines of Zeno, Chrysippus, Cleanthes, and others on topics such as justice, love, suicide, and the community of women among the wise.
Chapter 63
Zeno
This chapter recounts the life and teachings of Zeno of Citium, the founder of the Stoic school. It describes his arrival in Athens, his teaching in the Painted Colonnade (Stoa), the high esteem in which the Athenians held him (including a golden crown and a bronze statue), his correspondence with King Antigonus, and the decree of the Athenians honoring him. It also lists his many disciples and successors, outlines the division of philosophy into logic, ethics, and natural philosophy, and summarizes key Stoic doctrines on ethics, politics, and natural philosophy.
Chapter 64
Ariston
This chapter focuses on Ariston the Bald of Chios, a Stoic philosopher who emphasized indifference to intermediate things between virtue and vice, rejected physics and logic in favor of ethics, and defined virtue as behavior relative to a specific context. It recounts his debates with Persaeus and Arcesilaus, his influence as a founder of a sect, and his death from sunstroke. The chapter also lists his attributed works and mentions other men named Ariston.
Chapter 65
Herillus
This chapter discusses Herillus of Carthage, a philosopher who identified the chief good as knowledge and emphasized living according to knowledge without being misled by ignorance. It explores his views on the chief good, subordinate ends, and the indifference of things between virtue and vice. The chapter also notes his concise but powerful writings and an anecdote about Zeno persuading him to shave his head to deter his followers.
Chapter 66
Dionysius
This chapter describes Dionysius, known as the Deserter, who asserted pleasure as the chief good due to his own painful eye condition. It details his education under various philosophers including Heraclides, Alexinus, Menedemus, and Zeno, his turn to the Cyrenaic school and indulgent lifestyle, his death by starvation at nearly eighty, and lists his writings. The chapter concludes by noting Cleanthes as Zeno's successor.
Chapter 67
Cleanthes
This chapter recounts the life and character of Cleanthes of Assos, a devoted pupil of Zeno who succeeded him as head of the Stoic school. Despite his poverty and slow intellect, Cleanthes was renowned for his extraordinary industry, working as a water-carrier by night to support his philosophical studies by day. The narrative includes anecdotes of his trial, his witty exchanges with rivals like Arcesilaus and Ariston, his patient endurance of ridicule, and his death by voluntary starvation after a brief illness. It also lists his many writings and emphasizes his unwavering commitment to Stoic principles.
Chapter 68
Sphaerus
Sphaerus, a pupil of Cleanthes and Zeno, becomes a prominent Stoic philosopher and visits the court of Ptolemy Philopater in Alexandria. He engages in a philosophical debate about opinion and perception, cleverly distinguishing between comprehensible and probable perceptions. The chapter also lists his extensive writings on topics ranging from cosmology and ethics to politics and dialectics.
Chapter 69
Chrysippus
This chapter details the life, character, and prolific writings of Chrysippus, the Stoic philosopher who succeeded Cleanthes. It covers his intellectual acumen, his immense output of over 705 books, his dialectical skill, his arrogance, his death from drinking unmixed wine (or from laughter), and his controversial doctrines including incest and cannibalism.
Chapter 70
Book VIII: The Pythagorean and Promiscuous Philosophers
This chapter explores the lives and teachings of Empedocles and Eudoxus, detailing their philosophical influences, contributions to natural philosophy, and their relationships with other thinkers such as Parmenides, Pythagoras, and Plato. It also touches on Empedocles' political engagements, his poetic and rhetorical skills, and his claims to divine status, while Eudoxus is noted for his astronomical and geometrical works, his travels, and his association with the Socratic school.
Chapter 71
Pythagoras
This chapter covers the life, teachings, and legacy of Pythagoras, founder of the Italian school of philosophy. It details his supposed transmigrations of the soul, his travels to Egypt and Crete to learn sacred mysteries, his establishment of a philosophical community in Crotona, his ethical and dietary precepts, and the symbolic sayings (symbola) attributed to him. It also discusses the writings ascribed to him and the secrecy of his school's doctrines.
Chapter 72
Empedocles
This chapter details the life, teachings, and legacy of Empedocles of Agrigentum. It covers his noble lineage, his education under Pythagoras and Parmenides, his political career, his reputation as a physician and magician, his poetic and rhetorical skill, and the various accounts of his death. The text also explores his philosophical contributions, his claim to divinity, and his influence on later thinkers.
Chapter 73
Epicharmus
Epicharmus, a native of Cos and pupil of Pythagoras, was brought to Megara in Sicily as an infant and later moved to Syracuse. He was renowned for his wisdom, as reflected in the inscription on his statue. He wrote commentaries on natural philosophy, apothegms, and medicine, with notes asserting his authorship. He died at age ninety.
Chapter 74
Archytas
This chapter details the life and achievements of Archytas of Tarentum, a Pythagorean philosopher, general, and mathematician. It highlights his rescue of Plato from Dionysius, his unprecedented seven-term generalship, his correspondence with Plato, his pioneering work in mechanics and geometry, and his discovery of the geometrical measure of a cube.
Chapter 75
Alcmaeon
Alcmaeon of Crotona, a pupil of Pythagoras, is noted for his medical writings and contributions to natural philosophy. He is considered the first to write a treatise on natural philosophy, arguing that the moon is eternal in nature and that the soul is immortal and perpetually moving like the sun. He also held that human affairs have two sides and that only gods have certain knowledge of invisible and mortal things.
Chapter 76
Hippasus
A brief account of Hippasus of Metapontum, a Pythagorean philosopher who held that the universe is finite, in perpetual motion, and undergoes change at definite times. The chapter also notes that he left no writings and distinguishes him from another Hippasus who wrote about the Lacedaemonian constitution.
Chapter 77
Philolaus
Philolaus, a Pythagorean from Crotona, was suspected of plotting tyranny and was killed by his fellow citizens. He was the first to write on natural philosophy among the Pythagoreans, teaching that everything is produced by harmony and necessity, and that the earth moves in a circle. His single book was reportedly purchased by Plato and used as a source for the Timaeus.
Chapter 78
Eudoxus
This chapter recounts the life and achievements of Eudoxus of Cnidus, an astronomer, geometrician, physician, and lawgiver. It details his education under Archytas and Philistion, his association with Plato, his travels to Egypt and the Propontis, his return to Athens with many disciples, and his later work as a lawgiver and author. The chapter also mentions his death at age 53 and the legend of Apis the bull licking his garment as an omen.
Chapter 79
Book IX: The Skeptics and the Eleatic School
This chapter covers the lives and doctrines of Xenophanes, Parmenides, Melissus, Zeno the Eleatic, Democritus, and Pyrrho, detailing their philosophical contributions, personal anecdotes, and the skeptical tradition that traces back to Homer and the Seven Sages.
Chapter 80
Heraclitus
This chapter details the life, character, and death of Heraclitus of Ephesus, a philosopher known for his arrogant and misanthropic nature. It recounts his disdain for other thinkers, his refusal to engage in politics, his obscure writings on nature, and his peculiar death from dropsy after attempting to cure himself with cow-dung. The chapter also includes anecdotes about his interactions with the Ephesians and King Darius, and lists various interpreters of his work.
Chapter 81
Xenophanes
Xenophanes of Colophon, a poet and philosopher, was banished from his homeland and lived in Sicily. He criticized Homer and Hesiod for their depictions of the gods, argued against Thales, Pythagoras, and Epimenides, and taught that there are four elements, infinite unchangeable worlds, and a spherical, non-anthropomorphic god. He lived to nearly a hundred years old and was the first to assert that everything produced is perishable and that the soul is spirit.
Chapter 82
Parmenides
This chapter details the life and teachings of Parmenides, a philosopher from Velia, pupil of Xenophanes and Anaximander, who embraced the tranquil life of philosophy under the influence of Aminias the Pythagorean. He is credited with asserting the spherical shape of the earth, its central position in the universe, and a dual-element theory of fire and earth. He distinguished between philosophy based on certain truth and that based on opinion, emphasized reason over sensation, and is noted for discovering that Hesperus and Lucifer are the same star. He also gave laws to his fellow-citizens and was the first to employ the 'Achilles' argument.
Chapter 83
Melissus
Melissus of Samos, a pupil of Parmenides and conversant with Heraclitus, was a respected statesman and admiral. He taught that the universe is infinite, unchanging, immovable, and one, denying real motion and asserting that no certain knowledge of the gods exists. Apollodorus places his prime around the 84th Olympiad.
Chapter 84
Zeno, the Eleatic
This chapter details the life, character, and philosophical contributions of Zeno of Elea, a pupil of Parmenides known for his invention of dialectics, his political courage in opposing tyranny, and his doctrines on multiple worlds and the nature of matter.
Chapter 85
Leucippus
This chapter introduces Leucippus, the first philosopher to propose atoms as fundamental principles. It describes his doctrines on the infinite universe, the void, the formation of worlds through vortices, and the nature of celestial bodies, including the sun, moon, and stars.
Chapter 86
Democritus
This chapter details the life, travels, teachings, and legacy of Democritus of Abdera, the atomist philosopher. It covers his education under Leucippus and possibly Anaxagoras, his extensive travels to Egypt, Persia, and India, his frugal and industrious habits, his atomic theory and ethical doctrine of cheerfulness (εὐθυμία), his extensive writings, and his death at an advanced age. It also recounts anecdotes about his interactions with Hippocrates and Plato's attempted suppression of his works.
Chapter 87
Protagoras
This chapter details the life, teachings, and legacy of Protagoras of Abdera, a pre-Socratic philosopher known for his relativistic doctrine that 'man is the measure of all things,' his agnosticism regarding the gods, his pioneering role as a paid teacher of rhetoric and sophistry, and his invention of dialectical argumentation. It recounts his banishment from Athens, the burning of his books, his death by shipwreck, and his influence on later thinkers.
Chapter 88
Diogenes of Apollonia
This chapter introduces Diogenes of Apollonia, a natural philosopher and pupil of Anaximenes, contemporary of Anaxagoras, who faced unpopularity and danger in Athens. His doctrines include air as the primary element, infinite worlds and void, generation and destruction from condensation and rarefaction, and a round earth fixed at the center of the universe.
Chapter 89
Anaxarchus
Anaxarchus of Abdera, a philosopher of the school of Democritus and companion of Alexander the Great, is known for his fearless defiance against the tyrant Nicocreon, who brutally executed him by pounding in a mortar. His famous saying 'Beat the bag of Anaxarchus, but you will not beat Anaxarchus himself' exemplifies his equanimity and self-control, earning him the epithet 'the Happy.' He also reproved Alexander's delusion of divinity by pointing to his blood as mortal.
Chapter 90
Pyrrho
This chapter details the life and philosophy of Pyrrho of Elis, the founder of Skepticism. It describes his early life as a painter, his travels with Anaxarchus to India where he encountered the Gymnosophists and Magi, and his development of the doctrine of incomprehensibility and suspension of judgment. The chapter recounts anecdotes illustrating his indifference and impassiveness, his honor by his country, and his influence on later philosophers such as Timon and Epicurus. It also discusses the origins and principles of the Skeptic school, tracing its roots to earlier thinkers like Homer, Xenophanes, and Democritus.
Chapter 91
Timon
This chapter details the life and character of Timon of Phlius, the Skeptic philosopher. It covers his early studies in dancing, his philosophical training under Stilpo and Pyrrho, his career as a Sophist, his prolific literary output including the Silloi, his eccentric habits, and his interactions with other philosophers. The chapter also traces the succession of his school down to Sextus Empiricus.
Chapter 92
Book X: Epicurus and the Pursuit of Pleasure
This chapter presents the life, teachings, and will of Epicurus, detailing his philosophy of pleasure as the chief good, the primacy of prudence, the nature of the gods, the insignificance of death, and the relationship between virtue and happiness. It includes his key maxims, his death, and the provisions of his will for his school and successors.
Chapter 93
Epicurus
This chapter details the life, doctrines, and death of Epicurus, including his hedonistic ethics, his views on pleasure and pain, the role of virtue, his will, and his advice on living a happy life through philosophy.
Chapter 94
Endnotes
This chapter provides extensive endnotes and references for the main text, including discussions on Zoroaster, Persian theology, Greek lawgivers, and various philosophical doctrines. It also includes textual clarifications, translations, and citations from classical sources such as Herodotus, Virgil, and Gibbon.
