Saint Joan · Chapters
Chapters explained
Chapter companions for Saint Joan by George Bernard Shaw.
Chapter 1
Preface to Saint Joan
Bernard Shaw provides a historical and philosophical preface to his play, discussing Joan of Arc's significance, the nature of her heresy trial, and the evolution of historical interpretation. He argues that Joan was a pioneering figure who challenged institutional authority and was ultimately martyred not for her voices but for her political and military actions, which threatened the established order of church and state.
Chapter 2
Joan the Original and Presumptuous
This chapter introduces Joan of Arc as a paradoxical figure: a pious Catholic who was also a proto-Protestant martyr, an early nationalist, a military innovator, and a woman who defied gender norms by dressing and fighting as a man. It highlights her extraordinary self-confidence and presumption, which led to her execution for heresy and witchcraft, and frames her as a disruptive force against established authority.
Chapter 3
Joan and Socrates
This chapter compares Joan of Arc and Socrates, highlighting how their intellectual and moral superiority provoked fury and hatred from those they exposed as foolish. Both figures were naive about the resentment they caused, leading to their downfalls.
Chapter 4
Contrast with Napoleon
This chapter contrasts Joan of Arc with Socrates and Napoleon, highlighting how Joan's impetuous action and saintly innocence led to her destruction, while Napoleon's calculated ambition allowed him to die in his bed. It explores the paradox that saints like Joan, Christ, and Socrates are destroyed by fear of their superior benevolence, whereas conquerors and official scoundrels often escape martyrdom.
Chapter 5
Was Joan Innocent or Guilty?
This chapter examines the historical and moral ambiguity surrounding Joan of Arc's trial and execution, arguing that her contemporaries judged her fairly by the standards of their time, while later rehabilitations and canonizations reflect shifting political and cultural biases. Shaw critiques both the libel of Joan by Jingo patriotism and the whitewashing of her judges by Protestant polemics, insisting that Joan was a genius and a saint, not a melodramatic heroine, and that understanding her requires transcending modern prejudices.
Chapter 6
Joan's Good Looks
This chapter examines Joan of Arc's physical appearance, arguing that she was not conventionally beautiful but rather had a striking, neutral face that inspired both respect and fear. It highlights that her comrades never described her as pretty, and that her heroic mission transcended romantic pursuits, comparing her to figures like George Washington. The chapter also discusses a possible sculptural portrait of Joan in Orleans, which features a unique, unidealized face that raises compelling questions about her identity.
Chapter 7
Joan's Social Position
This chapter examines Joan of Arc's social background, arguing against the romanticized notion that she was a poor shepherd girl. Instead, it presents her as the daughter of a working farmer who held a position of local leadership, allowing her a degree of social standing and comfort. The chapter highlights her literacy (or lack thereof) in context, her practical knowledge of politics and military affairs, and her pride in her domestic skills, ultimately positioning her as more of a 'young lady' and intellectual than commonly assumed.
Chapter 8
Joan's Voices and Visions
This chapter examines Joan of Arc's voices and visions, arguing that they do not prove madness, imposture, sorcery, or sainthood, but rather reflect a vivid dramatic imagination. It compares her to figures like Socrates, Luther, and Newton, asserting that the test of sanity is the reasonableness of the ideas, not the method of their arrival. Joan's military and political strategies, such as the relief of Orleans and the coronation at Rheims, are highlighted as sound and masterful, despite being received as divine instructions.
Chapter 9
The Evolutionary Appetite
This chapter explores the modern interpretation of Joan of Arc's visions and voices, arguing against the 19th-century view that they were mere delusions. Instead, it proposes that Joan's experiences represent a 'superpersonal need' or 'evolutionary appetite'—a driving force that uses individuals for purposes beyond personal survival and comfort. The author contends that visionaries like Joan are neither impostors nor lunatics, but rather individuals through whom the forces of evolution manifest, and that their experiences, while not objectively valid in a literal sense, are profoundly significant.
Chapter 10
The Mere Iconography Does Not Matter
This chapter argues that popular religions rely on legendary figures and imagery to make abstract spiritual concepts accessible, creating persistent hallucinations that shape adult thinking about inspiration, virtue, and conscience. For exceptionally imaginative or ascetic individuals, these mental images can manifest as literal visions of deities or saints.
Chapter 11
The Modern Education Which Joan Escaped
This chapter contrasts the medieval education Joan received, centered on Catholic saints and spiritual visions, with the modern scientific education she would undergo if reborn today. Shaw argues that modern science, despite its genuine achievements, has replaced religious iconography with a credulous worship of medical and psychological quackery, and that Joan's sanity and spiritual health compare favorably to the degraded condition of modern society.
Chapter 12
Failures of the Voices
This chapter examines the moments when Joan's voices and visions failed her, particularly during her trial when they assured her of rescue. It argues that the voices were likely projections of her own reason and hopes, and that her eventual recantation and relapse were rational responses to changing circumstances, culminating in her deliberate choice of martyrdom.
Chapter 13
Joan a Galtonic Visualizer
This chapter explains Joan of Arc's visions as a natural phenomenon of visualization, as studied by Francis Galton, rather than as evidence of mental unsoundness. It argues that many sane people experience similar hallucinations, and that Joan's ability to see imaginary saints is akin to other visualizers who see diagrams or landscapes in their mind's eye.
Chapter 14
Joan's Manliness and Militarism
This chapter explores Joan of Arc's unconventional gender expression and her passion for military life. Shaw argues that Joan's desire to lead a soldier's life was not a mere whim but a fundamental aspect of her character, driving her to adopt male dress, arms, and behavior. He compares her to other historical 'unwomanly women' who defied gender norms, suggesting that her masculinity was integral to her mission and eventual canonization.
Chapter 15
Was Joan Suicidal
This chapter examines the accusation that Joan of Arc had a suicidal tendency, arguing that her actions—such as jumping from a tower at Beaurevoir and courting death in battle—were not acts of suicidal mania but deliberate choices to risk death for freedom or to save Compiègne. The author compares her to military figures like Wellington and Nelson, who also took extreme risks without being labeled suicidal, and notes that Joan herself expressed conscience about the leap, claiming Saint Catherine forbade it but later forgave her.
Chapter 16
Joan Summed Up
This chapter provides a retrospective assessment of Joan of Arc, portraying her as a sane, shrewd, and pragmatic country girl rather than a romantic or impulsive figure. It emphasizes her calculated policy, realism in war comparable to Napoleon and Wellington, her peasantlike matter-of-factness, and her ability to command respect and obedience from all classes without idolatry or snobbery.
Chapter 17
Joan’s Immaturity and Ignorance
This chapter examines Joan of Arc's youth and lack of formal education, arguing that her immaturity and ignorance of complex social and political structures—such as Catholicism and Feudalism—limited her effectiveness to simple, direct military actions like the coronation and the Orleans campaign. Her common-sense approach and self-confidence led her into conflict with established institutions, making her a credible historical figure whose traits clash with both romanticized and skeptical portrayals.
Chapter 18
The Maid in Literature
This chapter examines how Joan of Arc has been portrayed in literature over the centuries, from Shakespeare's Henry VI to Schiller's Die Jungfrau von Orleans, Voltaire's La Pucelle, and the more historically grounded works of Mark Twain and Andrew Lang. It critiques these representations for their legendary or romanticized distortions, and highlights how the publication of Joan's trial records by Quicherat in 1841 shifted literary interest toward a more realistic understanding of her life and abilities.
Chapter 19
Protestant Misunderstandings of the Middle Ages
This chapter argues that to understand Joan of Arc, one must understand the medieval context of Christendom, the Catholic Church, the Holy Roman Empire, and the Feudal System, rather than viewing her through a modern or Protestant lens. It criticizes writers like Mark Twain and Andrew Lang for misrepresenting Joan's story by portraying her judges, especially Bishop Cauchon, as villains and the Inquisition as a mere instrument of persecution, thus failing to grasp the historical and religious framework that led to her execution.
Chapter 20
Comparative Fairness of Joan’s Trial
This chapter examines the fairness of Joan of Arc's trial, arguing that Cauchon was actually threatened by the English for being too lenient. It compares the trial to modern examples like Edith Cavell, noting that political partisanship and lack of neutral tribunals are unavoidable flaws. The chapter concludes that Joan's persecution would be similar today, with changes only in method, not in intolerance.
Chapter 21
Joan Not Tried as a Political Offender
This chapter argues that Joan of Arc's trial was not a political trial but a religious one, conducted by ecclesiastical and Inquisition courts as a heresy case. It explores Joan's defiance of Church authority, her reliance on private revelations, and the tragic misunderstanding between her and her judges. The chapter also critiques the later rehabilitation trial as politically motivated and notes the eventual canonization of Joan.
Chapter 22
The Church Uncompromised by Its Amends
This chapter explores the Catholic Church's capacity to reconcile its past actions, particularly the condemnation and canonization of Joan of Arc. It argues that the Church, unlike secular institutions, can admit error and elevate a former heretic to sainthood without compromising its doctrine of infallibility. The text contrasts the Church's humility with the arrogance of modern democracies and professions, and reflects on the horror of Joan's execution despite the tribunal's legality and conscientiousness.
Chapter 23
Cruelty, Modern and Medieval
The chapter argues that modern cruelty, particularly in prisons, is no less severe than medieval executions like Joan's burning, and that Joan's choice of the stake over imprisonment reflects her rejection of the Church's authority over her soul, positioning her as an early anti-clerical figure.
Chapter 24
Catholic Anti-Clericalism
This chapter explores the concept of anti-clericalism within Catholicism, arguing that one can be both a good Catholic and an anti-clerical. It cites reforming Popes and great religious orders as examples of anti-clericalism arising from dissatisfaction with clergy. The chapter distinguishes between denouncing individual priests and denying the Church's role in the souls of the people, a step Joan of Arc virtually took.
Chapter 25
Catholicism Not Yet Catholic Enough
The chapter argues that the Church must broaden its understanding to include figures like Joan of Arc, acknowledging that institutional orthodoxy cannot always accommodate prophetic genius. It calls for humility, acceptance of tension between regal, sacerdotal, and prophetic powers, and recognition that freethinking and faith are not opposed. Joan's canonization is framed as a Catholic gesture toward a Protestant saint, urging the Church to learn from its historical mistakes.
Chapter 26
The Law of Change Is the Law of God
This chapter argues that the law of evolution and change is fundamental to divine law, using Joan of Arc as an example of a self-selected saint who represents the unaveraged individual against institutional hierarchies. It critiques the Church's democratic selection process for producing mediocrity rather than sanctity, and contends that heresy and misconduct are often the first appearances of progress, making tolerance essential for improvement.
Chapter 27
Credulity, Modern and Medieval
Shaw contrasts medieval and modern credulity, arguing that modern faith in doctors and science is more gullible than medieval faith in the Church, because the Church had spiritual checks and believed in damnation, while modern professionals are soulless trade unions. He frames Joan's burning as a still-relevant question about institutional coercion.
Chapter 28
Toleration, Modern and Medieval
Shaw explores the paradox of toleration, arguing that society is fundamentally intolerant and must draw lines between acceptable conduct and crime or insanity. He compares medieval religious persecution to modern public health compulsion, noting that both eras face the same dilemma of where to draw the line, and warns that excessive repression of originality leads to destructive explosions.
Chapter 29
Variability of Toleration
Shaw argues that tolerance is not a fixed moral achievement but a variable condition that rises and falls with the strain on social cohesion. He compares modern persecutions—French Revolutionary terror, British actions in Ireland, Italian Fascist violence, and American anti-Russian hysteria—to medieval persecutions, concluding that Joan of Arc received a more lawful and conscientious trial from the Inquisition than any modern victim would receive under emergency laws.
Chapter 30
The Conflict Between Genius and Discipline
This chapter examines the tension between individual genius and social discipline, using Joan of Arc as a case study. It explores how authority is normally maintained through unquestioning obedience to accredited figures, and how Joan's direct claim to divine authority disrupted this hierarchy, allowing her to command everyone from her uncle to the king despite having no social standing.
Chapter 31
Joan as Theocrat
This chapter explores Joan's reliance on her claim of divine authority, which polarized those around her into believers who saw her as a messenger of God and skeptics who viewed her as a witch or impostor. It examines how her unyielding theocratic stance, combined with her youth and lack of conventional wisdom, provoked intense resentment among statesmen, military leaders, and courtiers, ultimately contributing to her downfall.
Chapter 32
Unbroken Success Essential in Theocracy
This chapter explores Joan of Arc's critical failure after the coronation of Charles VII, arguing that her inability to maintain unbroken success led to her downfall. It highlights her insistence on a swift attack on Paris, the king's timid diplomacy with Burgundy, and her subsequent capture at Compiègne, which revealed her political isolation.
Chapter 33
Modern Distortions of Joan’s History
This chapter examines how standard reference works accurately report the facts of Joan of Arc's career—her visit to Vaucouleurs, meeting with Charles at Chinon, relief of Orleans, coronation at Rheims, capture at Compiègne, trial and execution at Rouen—but fail by perpetuating a melodramatic legend of a wicked bishop and entrapped maiden. Shaw argues that the fashion of thought changes like clothing, making it difficult for most people to think outside their own period's biases.
Chapter 34
History Always Out of Date
This chapter discusses how history is taught with outdated perspectives and lies, using Joan of Arc as an example of how her story has been distorted by anti-Clerical, Protestant, and Roman Catholic biases over time.
Chapter 35
The Real Joan Not Marvellous Enough for Us
Shaw defends the modern age against the charge of being less imaginative than the Middle Ages, arguing that contemporary credulity in science and marvels far exceeds medieval belief in miracles and witchcraft. He suggests that the rejection of Joan as a witch is not because the explanation is too marvelous, but because it is not marvelous enough for a modern sensibility that demands even greater wonders.
Chapter 36
The Stage Limits of Historical Representation
Shaw explains the necessary compression of historical events for theatrical presentation, noting that Joan's story spans months but must be condensed into hours. He acknowledges his dramatizations are imaginative reconstructions, akin to Shakespeare's historical characters, and that he has merged figures like Dunois and the Duc d'Alençon for dramatic efficiency.
Chapter 37
A Void in the Elizabethan Drama
Shaw contrasts his own historical perspective, informed by the rediscovery of the Middle Ages, with the Elizabethan drama of Shakespeare, arguing that Shakespeare's characters lack medieval context and are instead individualistic, Protestant, and self-centered. Shaw asserts that his play fills this void by presenting the Church, the Inquisition, and the Feudal System as dramatic forces, making the story of Joan of Arc more than a personal accident.
Chapter 38
Tragedy Not Melodrama
Shaw argues that the drama of Joan of Arc is a tragedy, not a melodrama, because there are no villains. The people who condemned Joan were not evil but normally innocent people acting with good intentions and righteousness. This contradiction between pious intentions and tragic outcomes introduces an element of comedy into the tragedy, elevating it above mere police court sensation.
Chapter 39
The Inevitable Flatteries of Tragedy
Shaw explains the necessary artistic liberties taken in his play Saint Joan, arguing that to convey essential truth, the dramatist must make historical figures like Cauchon, Lemaître, and Warwick more self-aware and articulate than they were in reality, thereby sacrificing verisimilitude for veracity.
Chapter 40
Some Well-Meant Proposals for the Improvement of the Play
Shaw responds to critics who suggest cutting the epilogue and references to the Church, feudalism, the Inquisition, and heresy to shorten the play. He argues that such cuts would be replaced by elaborate, costly stage spectacles—like a real river and bridge, a staged battle, a coronation procession, and an onstage burning—which would bore audiences and cause them to miss trains. He warns that this is what would happen if he followed their advice, and suggests the public see the play while he is still alive.
Chapter 41
The Epilogue
Shaw defends the inclusion of the epilogue, arguing that Joan's true significance began with her execution and canonization, not ended with her death. He contrasts the triviality of accidental burning with the profound importance of sainthood, insisting that the epilogue is necessary to show both the incinerated Joan and the canonized Joan.
Chapter 42
To the Critics, Lest They Should Feel Ignored
Shaw defends the length and structure of his play St. Joan, arguing that genuine drama should be judged by its quality and engagement rather than by arbitrary time constraints. He criticizes fashionable audiences and pseudo-critics who prioritize social display over artistic experience, and he aligns himself with true theatre lovers who value classical comedy and tragedy for their own sake.
Chapter 43
Saint Joan
The play opens with a discussion of Joan of Arc's mission, her voices, and her eventual trial and execution, exploring themes of faith, nationalism, and the conflict between individual conviction and institutional authority.
Chapter 44
Scene I
Saint Joan — Stage Lens: dramatic beats, line helps that follow your scroll, and stage picture. Read to understand, not to collect a closed thesis.
Chapter 45
Scene II
Saint Joan — Stage Lens: dramatic beats, line helps that follow your scroll, and stage picture. Read to understand, not to collect a closed thesis.
Chapter 46
Scene III
Saint Joan — Stage Lens: dramatic beats, line helps that follow your scroll, and stage picture. Read to understand, not to collect a closed thesis.
Chapter 47
Scene IV
Saint Joan — Stage Lens: dramatic beats, line helps that follow your scroll, and stage picture. Read to understand, not to collect a closed thesis.
Chapter 48
Scene V
Saint Joan — Stage Lens: dramatic beats, line helps that follow your scroll, and stage picture. Read to understand, not to collect a closed thesis.
Chapter 49
Scene VI
Saint Joan — Stage Lens: dramatic beats, line helps that follow your scroll, and stage picture. Read to understand, not to collect a closed thesis.
Chapter 50
Epilogue
Saint Joan — Stage Lens: dramatic beats, line helps that follow your scroll, and stage picture. Read to understand, not to collect a closed thesis.
