The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism · Chapters
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Chapter companions for The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism by Bertrand Russell.
Chapter 1
The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism
Russell analyzes the Bolshevik regime, contrasting its theoretical foundations with its practical realities, including industrial collapse, peasant suffering, and the dictatorship's methods.
Chapter 2
Part I: The Present Condition of Russia
Russell describes the dire state of Russia under Bolshevik rule, focusing on industrial collapse, peasant food shortages, and the oppressive atmosphere in Moscow. He critiques the Bolsheviks' materialist conception of history and their suppression of democracy, while noting the fanaticism and cruelty that pervade the regime.
Chapter 3
I: What Is Hoped from Bolshevism
Russell examines Bolshevism as a new religion of hope, contrasting its idealistic promises with the grim realities in Russia. He argues that fanatical belief in any creed leads to cruelty and warns that the Bolshevik methods, though aiming at a just society, may produce chaos and destruction. He distinguishes between factors due to war, Russian character, and essential Bolshevik philosophy, and stresses the need to minimize violence in the transition to socialism.
Chapter 4
General Characteristics
Russell contrasts the Western socialist understanding of Bolshevik theory with its literal application in Russia, describing the fanatical dedication and ruthlessness of the Communist Party. He draws historical parallels to Cromwell's Puritans and Plato's Republic, analyzes the international revolutionary aims of the Third International, and reflects on the nationalist sentiment bolstered by the Polish war, as seen in Trotsky's public appearance.
Chapter 5
III: Lenin, Trotsky and Gorky
Russell recounts his conversations with Lenin, Trotsky, and Gorky, offering contrasting portraits of the Bolshevik leaders. He describes Lenin as a dictatorial, theory-driven figure with a religious faith in Marxism, who dismisses democratic processes and advocates for world revolution. Trotsky impresses Russell with his intelligence and magnetic personality, while Gorky, ill and heartbroken, appeals for sympathy for Russia's suffering. Russell reflects on the dangers of fanatical belief and the incompatibility of such faith with liberty.
Chapter 6
Art and Education
Russell examines the Bolshevik approach to art and education, noting initial freedom for artists but arguing that the revolutionary atmosphere inevitably subordinates art to propaganda. He contrasts the preservation of old bourgeois art with the rise of a new, popular, and religiously-toned Communist art, and warns that industrialization poses a greater threat to artistic impulse than Communist doctrine itself.
Chapter 7
V: Communism and the Soviet Constitution
Russell examines the Soviet political system, finding that the Soviet constitution is a facade; real power lies with the Communist Party, not the elected soviets. He describes the mechanisms of control—show-of-hands voting, state control of printing and meeting halls, and the use of the Extraordinary Commission—that ensure Communist dominance. He also categorizes the bureaucracy into three classes: old revolutionists, arrivistes, and non-Communist patriots, and notes the Bolsheviks' success in enlisting able administrators without permitting private wealth.
Chapter 8
VI: The Failure of Russian Industry
Russell analyzes the catastrophic collapse of Russian industry under the Bolsheviks, attributing it to dependence on foreign expertise, sabotage, and the failure of industrial conscription and militarized labor. He notes the desperate measures taken by the Ninth Congress of the Communist Party—such as compulsory labor service and registration of skilled workers—and argues that without outside economic assistance, the revolution's survival is doubtful. The chapter also critiques the Entente's justification of its hostile policy toward Russia by pointing to the country's industrial weakness.
Chapter 9
Daily Life in Moscow
Russell describes the mundane realities of life in Moscow, contrasting the lack of disorder and crime with the severe hardships of food shortages, long hours, police surveillance, and lack of social freedom. He notes the continuation of cultural activities like theatre and ballet, but emphasizes the drab, monotonous existence for most people, the omnipresence of police spies, and the limited sense of liberation among the working class.
Chapter 10
Town and Country
Russell examines the Bolshevik government's struggle to secure food from the peasantry for the urban centers, highlighting the peasants' indifference to national defense and the government's reliance on forced requisitions. He describes the food shortage in Moscow and Petrograd, the black market, and the unsustainable reliance on selling personal belongings. Russell argues that the situation is due to war and blockade, not Bolshevik policy, and that the only solutions are peace and trade or slow industrial development.
Chapter 11
International Policy
Russell argues that the Bolshevik regime's harshness stems from war and civil conflict, and that peace and trade would cure Russia's evils. He contends the Bolshevik government is stable and necessary for Russia, but criticizes its international policy as imperialistic and dangerous, especially in Asia. He distinguishes between practical Bolsheviks who seek national development and those driven by revolutionary and imperial ambitions.
Chapter 12
Part II: Bolshevik Theory
This chapter examines the theoretical foundations of Bolshevism, analyzing its doctrines and their practical implications for Soviet society.
Chapter 13
I: The Materialistic Theory of History
Russell examines Marx's materialistic conception of history, distinguishing it from philosophical materialism and arguing that economic motives alone cannot explain all historical events. He critiques the dogmatic application of this theory, noting that non-economic factors like nationalism, religion, and the desire for power also play crucial roles. He uses examples such as industrialism's effect on religion, the emancipation of women, and the persistence of nationalist sentiment during World War I to illustrate the limitations of a purely economic interpretation of history.
Chapter 14
II: Deciding Forces in Politics
Russell analyzes the fundamental passions driving political events—acquisitiveness, vanity, rivalry, and love of power—arguing that these, rather than material conditions alone, shape history. He critiques the Marxian emphasis on acquisitiveness, highlights the role of scientific intelligence in transforming material conditions, and warns that unchecked rivalry, amplified by concentrated power, threatens progress and even human survival.
Chapter 15
III: Bolshevik Criticism of Democracy
Russell examines the Bolshevik argument against parliamentary democracy, which holds that capitalism's control over propaganda and corruption makes constitutional change impossible, necessitating a violent minority revolution. He counters that this approach underestimates the dangers of power lust, the adaptability of capitalist states, and the likelihood that a minority dictatorship would become despotic. He argues that in democratic, politically educated countries, a Communist government could succeed through majority support and constitutional means, and that Bolshevik tactics of violence and deception are both impractical and morally corrosive.
Chapter 16
Revolution and Dictatorship
Russell critically examines the Bolshevik program for achieving Communism, focusing on the necessity of armed conflict, the dictatorship of the proletariat, and the eventual withering away of the state. He poses three key questions: whether the ultimate Communist state is desirable, whether the cost of achieving it is worth the gain, and whether Bolshevik methods will actually lead to their intended goal. While conceding the desirability of Communism in principle, Russell argues that the price—including widespread poverty, loss of liberty, and potential world war—is too high, and that the dictatorship of a minority is likely to perpetuate tyranny rather than lead to freedom and equality.
Chapter 17
Mechanism and the Individual
Russell argues that the fundamental evil of the modern world is the sacrifice of the individual to the machine, whether under capitalism or Bolshevism. He contends that inequality of power, not merely inequality of wealth, is the greatest political evil, and that lasting reform requires gradual, peaceful change rather than violent revolution. He critiques Bolshevik methods for concentrating power and neglecting individual freedom, and advocates for a society that values education, leisure, and the diffusion of power.
Chapter 18
Why Russian Communism Has Failed
Russell argues that the Bolshevik experiment in Russia has failed due to industrial collapse, peasant hostility, and the use of terror and coercion. He contends that the Bolsheviks' methods—forced requisitions, labor conscription, and militarism—have created a system resembling Tsarist autocracy rather than true communism. He warns that Western nations must learn from these failures to avoid a similar descent into chaos.
Chapter 19
Conditions for the Success of Communism
Russell argues that while the fundamental ideas of Communism are sound, the transition from capitalism must be carefully managed to avoid industrial paralysis, starvation, and civil war. He critiques the Bolshevik strategy of immediate revolution, advocating instead for gradual, constitutional approaches such as self-government in industry, especially in prosperous countries like England and America. He emphasizes the need for widespread technical education among workers, patience, and propaganda to build a strong base of support, warning that premature revolutions in Europe would be crushed by American economic supremacy.
Chapter 20
Endnotes
The endnotes provide citations and references to Bolshevik documents, particularly the Theses Presented to the Second Congress of the Communist International, discussing electrification, land grants, the role of the Communist Party, and the state of printing and agitation in Soviet Russia.
