What Is Property? · Chapters
Chapters explained
Chapter companions for What Is Property? by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon.
Chapter 1
P. J. Proudhon
This chapter provides a biographical and intellectual overview of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, tracing his development from early influences like Adam Smith through his major works including 'What is Property?', 'System of Economical Contradictions', and 'War and Peace'. It details his legal troubles, his engagement with Hegelian ideas via Charles Grün, his theories on antinomy, federalism, and equilibrium, and his later political writings on Italian unity and taxation. The chapter concludes with his death in 1865 and the posthumous publication of his works.
Chapter 2
What Is Property?
Proudhon introduces his central inquiry into the nature and legitimacy of property, arguing that property is fundamentally unjust and incompatible with true equality and justice. He critiques existing legal and philosophical justifications for property, laying the groundwork for his anarchist critique.
Chapter 3
First Memoir
The First Memoir opens with an epigraph from the Law of the Twelve Tables, setting a tone of eternal opposition against the enemy. The chapter likely begins Proudhon's inquiry into the nature and legitimacy of property, framing it as a fundamental social and legal question.
Chapter 4
I
Proudhon introduces his central thesis that property is robbery, framing it as a revolutionary truth that will reshape society. He outlines his method: to examine property through the lens of justice, showing that arguments for property inevitably lead to equality and thus negate property itself. He distinguishes between legitimate possession and unjust property, and previews his investigation into occupation, labor, and the impossibility of property as an institution.
Chapter 5
II
Proudhon examines property as a natural right, contrasting Roman and French legal definitions that grant absolute domain. He distinguishes property (a legal right) from possession (a matter of fact), introducing the concepts of jus in re and jus ad rem, and frames his memoir as an action petitoire against property itself, demanding its abolition rather than redistribution.
Chapter 6
§ 1: Property as a Natural Right
Proudhon critiques the inclusion of property as a natural right in the Declaration of Rights, contrasting it with the absolute rights of liberty, equality, and security. He argues that property is not a natural right because it is not inviolable, is subject to taxation and conversion, and is inherently antisocial, leading to war between rich and poor. He announces his intention to examine occupation and labor as the alleged titles to property, concluding that property must have equality as its condition.
Chapter 7
§ 2: Occupation, as the Title to Property
Proudhon critiques the notion that occupation (first occupancy) can serve as a legitimate title to property. He examines arguments from Cicero, Grotius, Reid, and Destutt de Tracy, showing that each either implies equality or fails to justify property. He argues that occupation can only confer possession, not absolute property, and that true justice requires equal access to the means of life.
Chapter 8
§ 3: Civil Law as the Foundation and Sanction of Property
Proudhon argues that civil law, rather than nature or justice, created the right of property. He critiques legal scholars and legislators for transforming possession into absolute property, which he sees as a fiction that sanctions selfishness and inequality. He contends that occupation and labor only confer usufruct, not ownership, and that true justice requires equality of possession.
Chapter 9
III
Proudhon critiques the theory that property is born of labor, arguing that it implies equality and contradicts the Civil Code. He examines the proprietor's defenses—occupation, labor, consent, and prescription—and asserts that labor cannot justify property without leading to the restitution of appropriated labor.
Chapter 10
§ 1: The Land Cannot Be Appropriated
Proudhon argues that land, as a natural and gratuitous gift from Nature, cannot be legitimately appropriated as private property. He critiques economists like Say and M. Ch. Comte for conflating the possibility of appropriation with the right to it, and contends that the limited nature of land demands regulated use for the benefit of all, not private profit. He extends the argument to air and water, showing that property in land inevitably leads to monopolies over these elements, and concludes that equality of rights requires equality of possession.
Chapter 11
§ 2: Universal Consent No Justification of Property
Proudhon argues that universal consent cannot legitimize property, as such a contract would be null in justice, since man cannot alienate labor or liberty. He contends that if consent were given, it would require reciprocal surrenders, leading back to equality, and that any violation of equality breaks the compact, rendering property usurpation.
Chapter 12
§ 3: Prescription Gives No Title to Property
Proudhon argues that prescription (acquisition through lapse of time) cannot legitimize property. He contends that continued possession, no matter how long, cannot transform a usufructuary into a proprietor. Prescription, he claims, is a legal fiction that contradicts property itself, and that true justice requires equality of possessions. He critiques legal authorities like Grotius, Toullier, and Dunod, and concludes that property cannot be established by prescription, as reason and the right to life supersede any temporal claim.
Chapter 13
§ 4: Labor
Proudhon argues that labor does not inherently confer property rights over natural wealth. He critiques M. Ch. Comte's theory that labor creates property, showing that it leads to contradictions and ultimately to equality. He distinguishes between property in products (which may be exclusive) and property in the means of production (which must remain common).
Chapter 14
§ 5: That Labor Leads to Equality of Property
Proudhon argues that labor creates value and that the laborer retains a natural right of property in the product, even after receiving wages. He critiques the capitalist system where the collective force of workers is exploited by proprietors, leading to inequality. He concludes that labor necessarily leads to equality of property, as every worker should own the value they create.
Chapter 15
§ 6: That in Society All Wages Are Equal
Proudhon argues that in a just society, all wages must be equal because labor is a cooperative struggle against nature, not a competition between individuals. He critiques the St. Simonian and Fourierist maxims of rewarding according to capacity, capital, or labor, asserting that capital cannot legitimately yield income and that natural inequalities neutralize themselves through association. The chapter concludes that the only basis for inequality is property, and that equality of wages is both necessary and possible.
Chapter 16
§ 7: That Inequality of Powers Is the Necessary Condition of Equality of Fortunes
Proudhon addresses the objection that natural inequalities of talent and intelligence justify unequal rewards. He argues that inequality of powers is actually the necessary condition for equality of fortunes. He critiques the economist Say's division of a physician's fortune into educational costs and natural talent, showing that the cost of education is a debt to be repaid, not a source of income. Proudhon concludes that all capacities are entitled to the same reward, and that superiority of genius itself grounds equality of fortunes.
Chapter 17
§ 8: That, from the Standpoint of Justice, Labor Destroys Property
Proudhon argues that labor, rather than creating property, actually destroys it because all production is social and interdependent. Every product is mortgaged in advance by society, and the laborer is a perpetual debtor who cannot truly own even the wages of his labor. Property is thus an unfaithful guardianship, and the principle of justice demands that labor leads to equality, not exclusive ownership.
Chapter 18
IV
Proudhon argues that property is not only unjust but also impossible, using mathematical and numerical reasoning to demonstrate that equality of conditions is the only viable and natural state. He challenges the common objection that equality is a chimera and asserts that property contradicts arithmetic and logic.
Chapter 19
Demonstration
Proudhon presents a series of propositions demonstrating the impossibility and injustice of property, arguing that property is theft because it allows the owner to claim the fruit of another's labor without contributing equivalent value. He uses economic reasoning to show that property leads to waste, inequality, and the impossibility of fair exchange, and critiques economists like Say for defending property as a necessary institution.
Chapter 20
First Proposition
Proudhon argues that property is impossible because it demands something for nothing, using farm-rent as a central example. He critiques economists like Say, Ricardo, Malthus, and others for attempting to justify rent, asserting that land and capital are not inherently productive and that the proprietor's claim to payment for the use of land is illegitimate, amounting to theft.
Chapter 21
Second Proposition
Proudhon argues that property is impossible because it causes production to cost more than it is worth. Through economic analysis and a hypothetical community, he demonstrates that property rent is a wasteful tax that reduces workers' consumption and leads to unproductive consumption by proprietors, ultimately contradicting sound economic principles.
Chapter 22
Third Proposition
Proudhon argues that property is impossible because production is proportional to labor, not to property. He demonstrates through arithmetic that when proprietors withdraw from labor, total production falls, and their income must decrease accordingly. The maximum income of an idle proprietor is limited to a fraction of the product of one laborer, and since all have an equal right of occupancy, the right of increase cancels out, rendering property impossible.
Chapter 23
Fourth Proposition
Proudhon argues that property is impossible because it is essentially homicide. He contends that the right of increase (usury) is a form of robbery that forces tenants into perpetual debt and eventual starvation. Through detailed examples of peasant families and the dynamics of farm-rent, he demonstrates how property systematically extracts surplus from laborers, leading to their impoverishment and death, making property self-destructive.
Chapter 24
Fifth Proposition
Proudhon argues that property is impossible because it forces society to devour itself. Under property, laborers must produce beyond their needs and strength, leading to monopoly, the ejection of workers, and periodic catastrophes. The right of increase prevents laborers from buying back what they produce, causing systemic poverty, idleness, and destruction.
Chapter 25
Sixth Proposition
Proudhon argues that property is impossible because it inevitably leads to tyranny. He contends that under a property regime, political power is proportional to wealth, making electoral equality a violation of property rights. He illustrates this with examples from history and contemporary politics, showing that property is incompatible with political and civil equality.
Chapter 26
Seventh Proposition
Proudhon argues that property is impossible because its consumption, hoarding, or use as capital ultimately destroys its own foundation. Consumption without reproduction depletes wealth, hoarding nullifies it, and capitalizing turns it against production by reducing wages and the source of income. He illustrates this with the example of a proprietor who capitalizes income, leading to an inevitable increase in taxes and the budget, which he ties to the impossibility of property's sustainability.
Chapter 27
Eighth Proposition
Proudhon argues that property is impossible because its power of accumulation is infinite while the quantities it acts upon are finite. He illustrates this with a hypothetical loan of 100 francs at compound interest over 600 years, which would exceed the value of the entire globe. He criticizes the Fourierists for ignoring this dynamic and questions the justice and wisdom of legislators who established property without understanding its mathematical consequences, suggesting that all institutions built on property are based on an absurd hypothesis.
Chapter 28
Ninth Proposition
Proudhon argues that property is impossible because it is powerless against itself, demonstrating through economic principles that the right of property inherently creates inequality of rights and relies on superior strength rather than justice. He uses examples of competition between producers and landowners to show that property cannot function without violating itself, and concludes that property is null and void without force.
Chapter 29
Tenth Proposition
Proudhon argues that property is impossible because it negates equality. He summarizes nine previous propositions to demonstrate that property violates economic justice, labor balance, and natural rights, ultimately concluding that property is a delusion and a negation.
Chapter 30
V
Proudhon begins a psychological exploration of the ideas of justice and injustice, aiming to determine the principle of government and right. He asserts that property is impossible and equality does not exist, yet humanity hates property while desiring it, and is ruled by equality without knowing how to attain it. He seeks to explain the antagonism between conscience and will, and the pernicious error that has made property a sacred principle of justice and society. Before explaining why man has violated justice, he insists on first determining what justice is.
Chapter 31
§ 1 Of the Moral Sense in Man and the Animals
Proudhon examines the moral sense in both humans and animals, arguing that the difference is one of degree rather than kind. He contends that social instinct, sympathy, and even a rudimentary sense of justice exist in animals, and that human morality is rooted in the same animal instincts, elevated only by reason and reflection. He criticizes philosophers who claim a unique divine conscience for humans, and sets the stage for his inquiry into the laws of society and justice.
Chapter 32
§ 2
Proudhon explores the dual nature of justice as a combination of social instinct and the idea of equality, arguing that property is inherently unjust and impossible because it violates the necessary equality of society. He distinguishes between special social duties (like family preference) and universal justice, and compares human sociability to that of animals, concluding that justice arises from intellect and emotion, not innate sentiment.
Chapter 33
§ 3
Proudhon argues that equality of conditions is a natural law supported by jurisprudence, political economy, and psychology, and that property has been the root cause of historical revolutions. He distinguishes between justice (equality of distribution) and équité (benevolence beyond strict debt), asserting that society must prioritize justice before generosity. He also critiques anthropomorphic attributions of justice to God and kings, and explores how human sociability, based on diverse talents and intellectual exchange, differs fundamentally from animal association.
Chapter 34
§ 1
Proudhon explores the causes of social disorder, arguing that property arises from the misuse of human reason and reflection, in contrast to the fixed instincts of animals. He posits that communism is the thesis, property the antithesis, and seeks a synthesis for true human association.
Chapter 35
§ 2 Characteristics of Communism and of Property
Proudhon contrasts communism and property, arguing that both are flawed forms of social organization. He critiques communism as oppressive, uniform, and exploitative of the strong by the weak, while property is condemned as despotism and the right to abuse. He traces the evolution of justice from the right of the strongest through artifice, linking property to exploitation, usury, and robbery in various forms.
Chapter 36
Determination of the Third Form of Society. Conclusion.
Proudhon synthesizes communism and property into a third form of society called liberty, which balances equality, law, independence, and proportionality. He argues that property is oppressive and antisocial, while communism is tyrannical and unjust. Liberty, as the synthesis, respects individual autonomy within the bounds of natural law and necessity. Proudhon concludes with a passionate call for social regeneration, urging the young to embrace liberty and equality, and prophesying the end of property and the dawn of a new society.
Chapter 37
Second Memoir: A Letter to M. Blanqui
Proudhon defends his work 'What is Property?' against accusations of inciting class hatred, clarifying that he attacked the institution of property itself, not individual proprietors. He outlines three causes of social inequality—gratuitous appropriation of collective wealth, inequality in exchange, and the right of profit—and argues that property is identical to robbery. He reviews historical attempts to establish equality, such as Lycurgus' reforms in Sparta, and discusses modern legal limitations on property like expropriation for public utility, suggesting that property rights are being progressively eroded.
Chapter 38
Endnotes
Proudhon's endnotes expand on earlier arguments, critiquing literary property, the Fourierists, and the clergy, while defending equality and justice against property-based systems. He also clarifies terms like 'anarchy' and 'liberty,' and addresses the St. Simonian and Fourierist approaches to inheritance and social organization.
