The Theory of Moral Sentiments · Chapter
II: Of the Origin of Ambition, and of the Distinction of Ranks explained
This chapter explores the human desire for wealth, power, and distinction, arguing that it is driven not by material necessity but by the desire for sympathy, attention, and approbation from others.
What happens
This chapter explores the human desire for wealth, power, and distinction, arguing that it is driven not by material necessity but by the desire for sympathy, attention, and approbation from others. Smith examines how rank and status command natural deference, how the rich and powerful are admired for their station rather than their virtue, and how the fall from greatness is felt as an unbearable loss of public regard. He illustrates these points with historical examples, including Louis XIV and the captive king of Macedon.
Themes in this chapter
Corruption of Moral Sentiments by Wealth and Rank
Smith argues that the natural disposition to sympathize with joy rather than sorrow leads us to admire the rich and powerful for their station, not their virtue, corrupting moral judgment.
Self-Love and the Social Order
The pursuit of wealth and rank is driven by vanity and the desire for attention, which underpins social emulation and the distinction of ranks.
Sympathy as the Foundation of Moral Judgment
The chapter's core argument—that we seek riches to be the object of sympathy and approbation—rests on the principle of sympathy as the basis of moral sentiments.
Characters to notice
- Louis XIV
Cited as a model prince whose reputation rested on his majestic appearance and deportment rather than on justice, knowledge, or heroic valour.
- Charles I
Mentioned in the context of public compassion after his death leading to the restoration of the monarchy.
- James II
Referenced as an example of public compassion nearly preventing the Revolution when he was seized by the populace.
- Philip
Implied through the reference to the king of Macedon led in triumph by Paulus Aemilius.
- Eumenes
Implied as one of the friends and ministers of the fallen king of Macedon, weeping for their sovereign.
Key passages
“To be observed, to be attended to, to be taken notice of with sympathy, complacency, and approbation, are all the advantages which we can propose to derive from it.”
The only real benefit of improving our condition is gaining the sympathetic attention and approval of others.
This encapsulates Smith's argument that vanity, not utility, drives ambition.
“Nature would teach us to submit to them for their own sake, to tremble and bow down before their exalted station, to regard their smile as a reward sufficient to compensate any services, and to dread their displeasure, though no other evil were to follow from it, as the severest of all mortifications.”
Our natural instinct is to defer to kings and superiors simply because of their high rank, valuing their approval above all else.
Smith contrasts natural deference with the philosophical doctrine that rulers are servants of the people.
“The rich man glories in his riches, because he feels that they naturally draw upon him the attention of the world, and that mankind are disposed to go along with him in all those agreeable emotions with which the advantages of his situation so readily inspire him.”
The wealthy take pride in their riches because wealth attracts universal attention and sympathy for their happiness.
This illustrates how sympathy with joy underpins the social value of wealth.