The Secret History · Chapters
Chapters explained
Chapter companions for The Secret History by Procopius.
Chapter 1
Foreword by the Historian
Procopius explains his shift from a formal chronicle of Roman wars to a secret history revealing the true, often scandalous, deeds of Justinian, Theodora, and Belisarius. He justifies his earlier omissions due to fear of spies and death, and now feels compelled to disclose the hidden motives and actions, hoping both to warn future generations and to show that tyrants face retribution.
Chapter 2
The Secret History
Procopius's secret chronicle exposes the corruption, hypocrisy, and tyranny of Justinian and Theodora's reign, detailing their abuses of power, moral decadence, and the suffering inflicted upon the Roman Empire.
Chapter 3
How the Great General Belisarius Was Hoodwinked by His Wife, Whose Lover Became a Monk
This chapter details the adulterous affair between Antonina, wife of the great general Belisarius, and Theodosius, a young Thracian whom Belisarius had adopted as a son. Despite being caught in the act, Belisarius is easily deceived by Antonina's lies. When a slave named Macedonia reveals the truth, Belisarius orders Theodosius killed, but the plan is betrayed by servants loyal to Antonina. Theodosius flees to Ephesus, but Antonina uses enchantments and caresses to convince Belisarius the charges are false. Theodosius returns, and Antonina brutally murders the witnesses. She later pressures Belisarius into killing Constantine for a remark against her. Eventually, Theodosius becomes a monk out of fear of exposure, but continues to secretly meet Antonina.
Chapter 4
II: How Belated Jealousy Affected Belisarius’s Military Judgment, to the Joy of the Enemy
Belisarius, consumed by jealousy over Antonina's affair with Theodosius, prioritizes personal vengeance over military duty. He takes Photius into his confidence, swears oaths of mutual loyalty, and plans to capture Theodosius. This obsession leads him to prematurely withdraw from the Persian campaign after capturing Sisauranum, failing to cross the Tigris and rescue Roman captives. Meanwhile, Chosroes, facing mutiny in Lazica, uses a letter from Theodora to Zaberganes to calm his troops and retreats unopposed, blaming Belisarius's absence for his safe return.
Chapter 5
III: Showing the Danger of Interfering with a Woman’s Intrigues, Especially When the Woman Is the Friend of an Empress
Theodora protects Antonina by hiding Theodosius in the palace and torturing Photius and Belisarius's friends. Photius escapes twice but is recaptured, eventually fleeing to Jerusalem. Belisarius fails in his campaign against Chosroes, and Theodora forces him to reconcile with Antonina. Theodosius dies of dysentery.
Chapter 6
How Theodora, Revenging Her Dear Antonina, Humiliated the Conqueror of Africa and Italy
Theodora, believing Belisarius and Buzes plotted against her during Justinian's illness, imprisons Buzes in a dungeon for over two years and strips Belisarius of his command, confiscates his wealth, and forces him into humiliating submission to his wife Antonina, who orchestrates his pardon. Belisarius, broken in spirit, becomes Antonina's slave and is later sent to Italy as Count of the imperial remounts, where his fortunes turn disastrous.
Chapter 7
How Theodora Tricked the General’s Daughter Into a Liaison with the Empress’s Nephew, and Belisarius Became a Public Laughing Stock
Belisarius returns from his second Italian expedition in disgrace, having plundered allies and lost Rome. His estrangement from John, nephew of Vitalian, due to Theodora's machinations, further cripples Roman efforts. Theodora forces Belisarius's daughter into a clandestine union with her nephew Anastasius to secure his wealth. After Theodora's death, Antonina breaks the match, causing public scandal. Belisarius's subservience to Antonina and his broken promises make him a laughingstock. The chapter also recounts Sergius's treacherous murder of Levathae ambassadors and Solomon's ingratitude and murder of Pegasius.
Chapter 8
Ignorance of the Emperor Justin, and His Stencilled Signature, and How His Nephew Justinian Was the Virtual Ruler
This chapter details the rise of Justin, an illiterate Illyrian farmer who became Roman Emperor through military power, and the de facto rule of his nephew Justinian, who is portrayed as a corrupt and destructive force. It describes Justin's inability to read or write, his use of a stenciled signature, and his wife Lupicina's background. Justinian is depicted as a ruthless ruler who murdered rivals like Amantius and Vitalian, seized property, and brought calamity upon the Roman state.
Chapter 9
VII: Outrages of the Blues
Justinian aligns himself with the Blues faction, inciting them to violence and lawlessness, which plunges the Roman Empire into chaos. The Blues commit murders, robberies, and other atrocities with impunity, while the government, under Justinian's influence, fails to punish them. The chapter details the breakdown of law and order, the corruption of justice, and the despair of the common people, culminating in Justinian openly supporting and rewarding the criminals.
Chapter 10
Character and Appearance of Justinian
Procopius provides a scathing portrait of Emperor Justinian, describing him as deceitful, hypocritical, cruel, and easily led to evil, while also noting his average physique and resemblance to the hated Emperor Domitian. He details Justinian's wasteful spending, confiscation of private estates, and indifference to the suffering he causes across the Roman Empire.
Chapter 11
IX: And How Theodora, Most Depraved of All Courtesans, Won His Love
This chapter recounts the early life of Theodora, from her impoverished childhood as the daughter of a bear-keeper to her rise as a notorious courtesan and actress in Constantinople. It details her shameless behavior on and off the stage, her travels across the East, and her eventual return to Constantinople where she captivates Justinian. Justinian falls violently in love with her, raises her to patrician rank, and together they plunder the empire while favoring the Blue faction. The chapter also includes an account of Justinian's illness, the crimes of the Blues, and the unjust punishment of Theodotus.
Chapter 12
X: How Justinian Created a New Law Permitting Him to Marry a Courtesan on Her Promise to Repent Her Past; and the Truth About the Apparent Quarrels of a Happy Pair
Justinian, after the death of Empress Euphemia, manipulates the senile Emperor Justin to create a new law permitting marriage to a courtesan, enabling him to wed Theodora. He then seizes imperial power, and the couple ascends the throne. The chapter reveals their coordinated hypocrisy: they feign disagreements to divide and control their subjects, ruin political factions, and confiscate wealth through a calculated charade of opposition.
Chapter 13
XI: How the Defender of the Faith Ruined His Subjects
Justinian, upon taking power, overturns established laws and customs, creating new offices and renaming everything after himself. He loots the wealthy, bribes barbarians to wage war, and sets Huns against the Romans for his own gain. He persecutes religious dissenters, confiscates wealthy church properties, and forces conversions, leading to rebellion, massacre, and mass emigration. He also enacts a retroactive law against pederasty and persecutes astrologers, causing further flight from the empire.
Chapter 14
XII: Proving That Justinian and Theodora Were Actually Fiends in Human Form
This chapter details the ruthless confiscation of wealth by Justinian and Theodora, targeting senators and wealthy citizens through fraud, forged wills, and bribery. It describes how they seized estates, including those of Zeno, Tatian, Demosthenes, and others, and after the Nika insurrection, they confiscated nearly all senatorial property. The chapter also presents supernatural accounts suggesting Justinian and Theodora were demons in human form, including stories of Justinian's demonic parentage, his shape-shifting, and Theodora's dream of marrying the King of the Devils.
Chapter 15
XIII: Deceptive Affability and Piety of a Tyrant
This chapter exposes the profound hypocrisy and tyranny of Emperor Justinian, who presents a facade of affability and piety while ruthlessly destroying his subjects. It details his corruption, lawlessness, greed, and manipulation of religion to justify murder and confiscation of property, highlighting his deceptive nature and the ruin he brought upon the Roman state.
Chapter 16
XIV: Justice for Sale
Procopius describes how Justinian debased the imperial office by personally issuing decrees, selling justice, and allowing bribery to corrupt the legal system. The Senate became a powerless formality, and the emperor, influenced by the corrupt Leo of Cilicia, openly traded verdicts for gold, undermining all law and contract.
Chapter 17
XV: How an Roman Citizens Became Slaves, and a Complaining Patrician Was Ribaldly Mocked by Theodora’s Eunuchs
The chapter details Theodora's unyielding cruelty and her absolute control over the Roman court, contrasting her harshness with Justinian's false geniality. It describes how she manipulated justice, destroyed enemies, and mocked a patrician who came to her for help, turning his plea into a theatrical jest with her eunuchs. The chapter also highlights the corruption and servility that pervaded Roman society under their rule.
Chapter 18
XVI: What Happened to Those Who Fell Out of Favor with Theodora
This chapter details Theodora's ruthless methods of dealing with those who offended her, including the murder of Queen Amalasuntha, the forced ordination of Priscus, the disappearance of Areobindus, and the torture and execution of Basanius. It also recounts the failed prosecution of Diogenes, where public outcry and judicial integrity thwarted her efforts.
Chapter 19
XVII: How She Saved Five Hundred Harlots from a Life of Sin, Made Away with Her Own Natural Son, and Other Curious Incidents of Her Passion for Match Making
Theodora's absolute control over state and personal affairs is detailed: she manipulates marriages, punishes those who oppose her, forces widows into unwanted unions, confines harlots to a monastery, and even disposes of her own son to hide her past. Her cruelty extends to crucifying a governor for punishing Blue faction members, and she relentlessly pursues John the Cappadocian with false witnesses.
Chapter 20
XVIII: How Justinian Killed a Trillion People
Procopius accuses Justinian of being a demon in human form who caused the deaths of a trillion people through devastating wars, oppressive taxation, neglect of soldiers, religious persecution, civil strife, and natural disasters. He details the depopulation of Libya, Italy, Illyria, Thrace, and the East, blaming Justinian's greed, incompetence, and bloodthirstiness for the ruin of the Roman Empire.
Chapter 21
XIX: How He Seized All the Wealth of the Romans and Threw It Away in the Sea and on the Barbarians
Justinian, upon inheriting a well-funded treasury from Anastasius, rapidly exhausts the state's wealth through extravagant building projects and lavish gifts to barbarians. He then turns to plundering his subjects via false accusations and arbitrary confiscations, draining Roman prosperity and enriching foreign nations.
Chapter 22
XX: Debasing of the Quaestorship
This chapter details how Justinian systematically debased the office of Quaestor, appointing corrupt and unqualified men like Tribonian, Junilus, and Constantine, who sold decrees and plundered the state. It also describes new magistracies and monopolies created to extort money from subjects, with Justinian sharing in the loot and encouraging officials to compete in destroying innocent people.
Chapter 23
XXI: The Sky Tax, the Selling of All Offices, and How Border Armies Were Forbidden to Punish Invading Barbarians
This chapter details Justinian's corrupt system of selling public offices to the worst scoundrels, who then plundered the subjects to repay their debts and enrich themselves, only to have their fortunes confiscated by the emperor once they had amassed enough wealth. It also describes how Justinian forbade border armies from attacking invading Huns, claiming they were allies, leading to widespread devastation and the punishment of farmers who tried to rescue their captured families.
Chapter 24
XXII: Further Corruption in High Places
After dismissing John the Cappadocian, Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora seek an even more corrupt successor. They appoint Theodotus temporarily, then replace him with Peter Barsyames, a Syrian banker known for thievery and sycophancy. Peter sells offices, cheats soldiers of pay, forces cities to buy rotten grain, and institutes a ruinous 'cooperative buying' system. Despite public outcry and mutinous soldiers, Theodora protects Peter due to his cruelty and alleged sorcery, even promoting him to chief treasurer after removing the honest John of Palestine. The chapter illustrates the systemic corruption and tyranny under Justinian and Theodora.
Chapter 25
XXIII: How Landowners Were Ruined
Procopius details the systematic ruin of landowners under Justinian's reign. He contrasts past emperors who periodically remitted arrears with Justinian's thirty-two-year refusal to do so, forcing debtors into flight. He describes three ruinous levies: 'cooperative buying' (feeding the army at inflated costs), the 'impost' (taxes on abandoned estates), and special assessments for city repairs. The plague's devastation is compounded by Justinian's refusal to remit taxes on lands whose farmers died. Quartering of soldiers and 70,000 barbarians in Constantinople adds to the burden. Procopius concludes that Justinian and Theodora's rule brought unceasing war and calamity.
Chapter 26
XXIV: Unjust Treatment of the Soldiers, and How Justinian Tricked the “Students” Out of Their Pay by Threatening to Send Them to War
Justinian systematically defrauds and impoverishes the Roman military through corrupt schemes: selling commissions, creating supernumerary units only to disband them without refund, threatening the Student Corps with active duty to extort their pay, and appointing paymasters who pocket a portion of the soldiers' wages while denying promotions and bonuses. He also sends commissioners to purge aged or disabled soldiers, leaving them destitute, and neglects the border troops, whose pay is years overdue and who are ultimately discharged without compensation. The chapter details the ruinous effect on military morale and the empire's defenses.
Chapter 27
XXV: How He Robbed His Own Officials, Merchants, Sailors, Workmen, and Everybody Else
Justinian systematically robs his own officials by withholding their pensions, then imposes oppressive customs duties on merchants and sailors at both straits, debases the coinage to cheat the people, and finally seizes control of the silk trade through his treasurer Peter Barsyames, ruining artisans and driving many to flee to Persia.
Chapter 28
XXVI: How He Spoiled the Beauty of the Cities and Plundered the Poor
This chapter details how Emperor Justinian systematically ruined the cities of the Roman Empire, particularly Constantinople, by debasing the legal profession, cutting subsidies to physicians and teachers, diverting municipal funds to the imperial treasury, and ending public spectacles and consular distributions. It describes his monopolies on essential goods, the adulteration of bread, neglect of public infrastructure like aqueducts, and the impoverishment of the poor, beggars, and diseased. Specific examples include Alexander the Scissors' actions in Italy and Greece, and Governor Hephaestus's oppressive monopoly and grain theft in Alexandria, all approved by Justinian.
Chapter 29
XXVII: How the Defender of the Faith Protected the Interests of the Christians
Procopius recounts several episodes illustrating Justinian's hypocrisy and greed in religious matters. He describes the appointment and subsequent murder of a deacon by Paul, the Bishop of Alexandria, with the complicity of Rhodon and Arsenius. Justinian initially punishes the perpetrators but later accepts a bribe from Paul to reinstate him. Similarly, Faustin, a nominal Christian and Samaritan, is exiled for persecuting Christians but is quickly restored to favor after paying the Emperor. These examples demonstrate Justinian's disregard for justice, religion, and the law in pursuit of wealth.
Chapter 30
XXVIII: His Violation of the Laws of the Romans, and How Jews Were Fined for Eating Lamb
Justinian abolishes the statute of limitations for the church to enable a fraudulent scheme against wealthy citizens of Emesa, orchestrated by the forger Priscus and church officials, and later suppresses Jewish Passover traditions, fining those who eat lamb.
Chapter 31
XXIX: Other Incidents Revealing Him as a Liar and a Hypocrite
Procopius details further examples of Justinian's deceit, hypocrisy, and greed, including his betrayal of the Blues, his contradictory letters regarding Liberius's office, and his seizure of estates from legal heirs under the guise of piety.
Chapter 32
XXX: Further Innovations of Justinian and Theodora, and a Conclusion Which Imagines the Death of an Emperor
This chapter details the tyrannical innovations of Justinian and Theodora, including the degradation of senatorial homage to prostrate foot-kissing, the forced residence of magistrates in the palace, the dismantling of the public courier and spy systems, the reduction of military camels, and the arbitrary seizure of a lawyer's village. It concludes with a reflection on the hidden prosperity of the Romans and the anticipated death of Justinian.
Chapter 33
Endnotes
This chapter provides endnotes that clarify and expand upon various historical figures, events, and terms mentioned in the main text, including Belisarius's origins, the fates of Silverius, John of Cappadocia, Constantine, Photius, Theodosius, and others, as well as notes on currency, geography, and Gibbon's interpretations.
