The Prince · Chapters
Chapters explained
Chapter companions for The Prince by Niccolò Machiavelli.
Chapter 1
Youth
This chapter explores the early life of Niccolò Machiavelli, set against the backdrop of Renaissance Florence. It contrasts the influences of the austere Savonarola and the magnificent Lorenzo de' Medici, noting that Savonarola's impact was minimal while Lorenzo's splendor left a lasting impression. The chapter also includes Machiavelli's own description of the youth of his time and a letter to his son Guido emphasizing the importance of study and self-improvement.
Chapter 2
Office
This chapter covers Machiavelli's service in the Florentine Republic from 1494 to 1512, detailing his diplomatic missions and the political figures he encountered, which later informed his writing of The Prince.
Chapter 3
Literature and Death
Following the return of the Medici, Machiavelli is dismissed from his post, imprisoned, and tortured. After his release, he retires to San Casciano, where he writes The Prince and other works, eventually regaining favor and receiving a commission to write the History of Florence. He dies in 1527 shortly after the Medici are again banished from Florence.
Chapter 4
The Man and His Works
This introductory chapter provides a biographical sketch of Niccolò Machiavelli, assessing his character, his political career, and his literary legacy. It argues that while Machiavelli was only moderately successful as a statesman, his true genius lay in his writing, particularly The Prince. The chapter defends Machiavelli against the sinister reputation of 'unholy necromancer,' noting that his ethics were those of his contemporaries and that his work remains relevant because it deals with eternal problems of governance, human nature, and the use of power. It also explains the translator's approach of literal fidelity over fluent paraphrase.
Chapter 5
The Prince
Machiavelli's treatise on political power, advising rulers on how to acquire and maintain control through pragmatism, strategic cruelty, and the manipulation of public perception, drawing on historical examples and contemporary Italian politics.
Chapter 6
Dedication
Machiavelli dedicates his work to Lorenzo de' Medici, offering his knowledge of great men's actions gained from experience and study as a gift, and expresses his hope that Lorenzo will attain greatness.
Chapter 7
I: How Many Kinds of Principalities There Are, and by What Means They Are Acquired
Machiavelli introduces the classification of states as either republics or principalities, and further divides principalities into hereditary and new types. New principalities can be entirely new or annexed to an existing state, and they are acquired through one's own arms, the arms of others, fortune, or ability.
Chapter 8
II: Concerning Hereditary Principalities
Machiavelli argues that hereditary principalities are easier to maintain than new ones, as a prince of average ability can preserve his state by following ancestral customs and adapting to circumstances. He uses the Duke of Ferrara as an example, noting that long-established rule fosters love from subjects and erases memories that might inspire change.
Chapter 9
III: Concerning Mixed Principalities
Machiavelli discusses the difficulties of holding newly acquired territories that are part of a larger state, emphasizing the challenges of mixed principalities. He uses the example of Louis XII of France losing Milan to illustrate the importance of managing conquered peoples, the need for a prince to reside in new territories, and the strategic use of colonies versus garrisons. He critiques Louis's errors, including aggrandizing the Church and bringing Spain into Italy, and concludes that a prince must avoid blunders that defer war to his disadvantage.
Chapter 10
IV: Why the Kingdom of Darius, Conquered by Alexander, Did Not Rebel Against the Successors of Alexander at His Death
Machiavelli explains why Alexander the Great's successors easily held the vast Empire of Asia after his death, contrasting centralized states like the Turk's (and Darius's) with decentralized feudal states like France. He argues that in a centralized state, once the ruling family is eliminated, there are no other powerful lords to lead rebellion, making conquest difficult but retention easy. In feudal states, conquest is easier due to internal malcontents, but retention is fraught with challenges from remaining barons.
Chapter 11
V: Concerning the Way to Govern Cities or Principalities Which Lived Under Their Own Laws Before They Were Annexed
Machiavelli discusses three methods for holding a state that was previously free: ruin it, reside there in person, or allow it to keep its laws under a tribute and an oligarchy. He argues that destroying such cities is the safest way to prevent rebellion, as the memory of liberty and ancient privileges persists and can incite revolt. He contrasts the failures of the Spartans with the success of the Romans, who dismantled rebellious cities, and notes that principalities accustomed to a prince are easier to hold than republics.
Chapter 12
VI: Concerning New Principalities Which Are Acquired by One’s Own Arms and Ability
Machiavelli discusses the acquisition of new principalities through one's own ability and arms, emphasizing that such princes rely on their own strength rather than fortune. He uses historical examples like Moses, Cyrus, Romulus, Theseus, and Hiero of Syracuse to illustrate that while initial acquisition is difficult, maintaining power is easier when the prince is self-reliant and can enforce his rule. The chapter highlights the challenges of introducing new orders, the necessity of force to sustain belief, and the importance of imitating great men.
Chapter 13
VII: Concerning New Principalities Which Are Acquired Either by the Arms of Others or by Good Fortune
Machiavelli examines principalities acquired through fortune or the arms of others, contrasting the rise of Francesco Sforza (by ability) with Cesare Borgia (by fortune). He details Borgia's actions—securing power through cruelty, cunning, and strategic alliances—and argues that Borgia's failure was due to the malignity of fortune, not his own shortcomings. The chapter emphasizes the need for a prince to lay foundations after acquiring power, using Borgia as a model for imitation.
Chapter 14
VIII: Concerning Those Who Have Obtained a Principality by Wickedness
Machiavelli examines how private individuals can rise to power through wicked or nefarious means, using the examples of Agathocles of Syracuse and Oliverotto da Fermo. He contrasts their methods, noting that cruelty can be 'properly used' if applied decisively and not repeated, while poorly used cruelty leads to instability. The chapter concludes with advice on the efficient application of violence and the strategic distribution of benefits.
Chapter 15
IX: Concerning a Civil Principality
This chapter examines how a private citizen can become prince through the favor of fellow citizens rather than through crime or violence. Machiavelli contrasts principalities gained by popular support versus those gained by noble support, arguing that rule founded on the people is more stable. He advises the prince to keep the people friendly, as they are easier to satisfy and more reliable in adversity than the nobles, who may plot against him. The chapter also warns against relying on magistrates and emphasizes the need for the prince to make citizens dependent on the state.
Chapter 16
X: Concerning the Way in Which the Strength of All Principalities Ought to Be Measured
Machiavelli distinguishes between princes who can defend themselves with their own resources and those who must rely on others. He advises the latter to fortify their towns and manage subjects wisely to deter attack, using the example of free German cities. He argues that a strong, fortified city and a prince who avoids hatred can withstand sieges, as subjects will remain loyal if the prince inspires hope, fear, and unity, especially after enemy destruction.
Chapter 17
XI: Concerning Ecclesiastical Principalities
Machiavelli discusses ecclesiastical principalities, which are sustained by religious institutions rather than military or political skill. He explains how the Church grew in temporal power from a weak state under previous popes to a formidable force under Alexander VI and Julius II, culminating in a powerful pontificate under Leo X.
Chapter 18
XII: How Many Kinds of Soldiery There Are, and Concerning Mercenaries
Machiavelli argues that the foundation of any state is good laws and good arms, and that mercenary and auxiliary troops are dangerous and unreliable. He illustrates with historical examples how reliance on mercenaries has led to the ruin of Italy, and contrasts this with the success of citizen armies in Rome, Sparta, and Switzerland.
Chapter 19
XIII: Concerning Auxiliaries, Mixed Soldiery, and One’s Own
Machiavelli argues that auxiliary troops are even more dangerous than mercenaries, as they are united under a foreign commander and can easily enslave the prince who calls them. He uses examples from Pope Julius II, the Florentines, and Cesare Borgia to illustrate the perils of relying on others' arms. The chapter concludes that a wise prince must build and rely on his own forces, citing biblical and historical precedents such as David and Goliath, Charles VII of France, and Philip of Macedon.
Chapter 20
XIV: That Which Concerns a Prince on the Subject of the Art of War
Machiavelli argues that the art of war is the sole study a prince must pursue, as it sustains rule and enables rise to power. Neglect of military discipline leads to loss of state, while mastery of it secures authority. He emphasizes constant training in peace through physical exercise and historical study, citing examples like Francesco Sforza, Philopoemen, Alexander the Great, and Scipio to illustrate the necessity of preparation for adversity.
Chapter 21
XV: Concerning Things for Which Men, and Especially Princes, Are Praised or Blamed
Machiavelli argues that a prince must focus on the real truth of governance rather than idealistic virtues, because acting virtuously in a corrupt world leads to ruin. He lists qualities for which men are praised or blamed, and asserts that a prudent prince must know how to do wrong when necessary, embracing vices that preserve his state over virtues that would destroy it.
Chapter 22
XVI: Concerning Liberality and Meanness
Machiavelli argues that while it would be ideal to be considered liberal, the practical consequences of pursuing such a reputation often lead to financial ruin, heavy taxation, and hatred from subjects. He advises the prince to accept a reputation for meanness, as it allows for defense and enterprise without burdening the people, citing examples like Pope Julius II and the King of Spain. He distinguishes between spending one's own resources (where frugality is wise) and spending others' (where liberality can be advantageous, as with Cyrus, Caesar, and Alexander). Ultimately, he concludes that meanness brings reproach without hatred, while liberality risks both poverty and hatred.
Chapter 23
XVII: Concerning Cruelty and Clemency, and Whether It Is Better to Be Loved Than Feared
Machiavelli argues that a prince should be both loved and feared, but if forced to choose, it is safer to be feared. He uses Cesare Borgia as an example of effective cruelty that unifies a state, and contrasts this with the Florentine people's misplaced mercy. He emphasizes that fear, maintained through punishment, is more reliable than love, which is easily broken by self-interest. However, a prince must avoid hatred by respecting subjects' property and women. Military contexts require cruelty to maintain discipline, as demonstrated by Hannibal, while Scipio's leniency led to rebellion.
Chapter 24
XVIII: Concerning the Way in Which Princes Should Keep Faith
Machiavelli argues that while it is praiseworthy for a prince to keep faith, experience shows that successful rulers often break their promises when it suits them. He introduces the metaphor of the lion and the fox, advocating for a prince to be both strong and cunning, and to appear virtuous while being ready to act otherwise when necessary to maintain the state.
Chapter 25
XIX: That One Should Avoid Being Despised and Hated
Machiavelli advises the prince to avoid being hated by refraining from rapacity and violating subjects' property and women, and to avoid being despised by showing decisiveness, courage, and gravity. He argues that a prince who is esteemed is safe from conspiracies, as conspirators fear the people's hostility. Using Roman emperors as examples, he contrasts those who pleased soldiers versus people, noting that modern princes must satisfy the people more than soldiers, except for the Turk and Sultan. He concludes that new princes should blend Severus's founding strength with Marcus's stability.
Chapter 26
XX: Are Fortresses, and Many Other Things to Which Princes Often Resort, Advantageous or Hurtful?
Machiavelli examines various strategies princes use to secure their states, such as disarming subjects, fostering factions, building or destroying fortresses, and cultivating enmities. He argues that new princes should arm their subjects to gain loyalty, warns against relying on factions or fortresses alone, and emphasizes that the best defense is not being hated by the people. Historical examples illustrate that fortresses can be useful or harmful depending on circumstances, and that winning over former enemies often yields greater fidelity.
Chapter 27
XXI: How a Prince Should Conduct Himself So as to Gain Renown
Machiavelli advises that a prince gains renown through great enterprises and decisive alliances, avoiding neutrality. He uses Ferdinand of Aragon as a model for using religion and war to build power. The chapter also emphasizes the importance of patronizing the arts, encouraging commerce, and entertaining the people while maintaining princely dignity.
Chapter 28
XXII: Concerning the Secretaries of Princes
Machiavelli discusses the critical importance of a prince's choice of ministers or secretaries, arguing that the quality of a prince's servants reflects his own wisdom. He categorizes intellects into three types: those who understand by themselves, those who appreciate what others understand, and those who are useless. He uses Pandolfo Petrucci and his servant Antonio da Venafro as an example of a wise prince who chooses capable and faithful servants. Machiavelli advises princes to judge servants by whether they prioritize the prince's interests over their own, and to secure loyalty through honor, enrichment, and shared responsibility.
Chapter 29
XXIII: How Flatterers Should Be Avoided
Machiavelli warns princes against the pervasive danger of flatterers in courts, who exploit self-complacency and deception. He advises a middle course: select wise counselors, grant them freedom to speak truth only on matters inquired, question them thoroughly, then form and steadfastly hold one's own conclusions. He cites Emperor Maximilian's secretive and indecisive nature as a cautionary example, and argues that good counsel stems from the prince's own wisdom, not the reverse.
Chapter 30
XXIV: Why the Princes of Italy Have Lost Their States
Machiavelli argues that new princes can appear well established by following the previous suggestions, and that the loss of states by Italian princes is due to their own sloth and lack of wisdom, not fortune. He emphasizes the importance of good laws, arms, allies, and example, and criticizes princes who fail to secure the people and nobles, or who rely on others for restoration rather than their own valour.
Chapter 31
XXV: What Fortune Can Effect in Human Affairs and How to Withstand Her
Machiavelli argues that fortune governs only half of human actions, leaving the other half to free will and human effort. He compares fortune to a flooding river that can be controlled with proper barriers and defenses. A prince's success depends on aligning his actions with the spirit of the times; those who fail to adapt are ruined. He cites Pope Julius II as an example of impetuous action succeeding because it matched the times, and concludes that it is better to be adventurous than cautious, as fortune favors the bold.
Chapter 32
XXVI: An Exhortation to Liberate Italy from the Barbarians
Machiavelli concludes The Prince with a passionate appeal to the Medici family to unite and liberate Italy from foreign domination. He argues that the present moment is uniquely favorable for a new prince to establish a new order, drawing parallels to Moses, Cyrus, and Theseus. He emphasizes the need for a national army composed of Italian citizens, critiques the weaknesses of Swiss and Spanish infantry, and urges the Medici to seize the opportunity to restore Italian glory.
Chapter 33
Endnotes
This chapter provides editorial annotations and historical clarifications for references in The Prince, including biographical notes on figures such as Maximilian I, Louis XII, Charles VIII, Francesco Sforza, Cesare Borgia, Alexander VI, Julius II, Agathocles, and others, as well as explanations of terms, battles, and sources.
