Essays · Chapters
Chapters explained
Chapter companions for Essays by Thomas Paine.
Chapter 1
Common Sense
Thomas Paine argues for American independence from British rule, critiquing monarchy and hereditary succession, and advocating for a representative government based on natural rights.
Chapter 2
Of the Origin and Design of Government in General, with Concise Remarks on the English Constitution
Paine distinguishes society from government, arguing that society arises from our wants and promotes happiness, while government is a necessary evil born from our wickedness. He traces the origin of government to a hypothetical small colony where natural liberty leads to society, then to representative government as the colony grows. He then critiques the English constitution as a complex, absurd mixture of monarchical and aristocratic tyrannies with republican elements, arguing that the Crown's power to give places and pensions makes it the overbearing part, and that the constitution's checks are ineffective.
Chapter 3
Of Monarchy and Hereditary Succession
Paine argues against monarchy and hereditary succession, asserting that all men are originally equal and that kingship is an unnatural and unjust institution. He uses biblical examples, such as Gideon and Samuel, to show divine disapproval of monarchy, and criticizes the hereditary system as a source of evil, war, and oppression. He traces the origin of kings to usurpation or election, not divine right, and condemns English monarchy as founded by William the Conqueror, a French bastard and usurper.
Chapter 4
Thoughts on the Present State of American Affairs
Paine argues that reconciliation with Britain is dangerous and that only independence can preserve peace and prevent civil war. He warns that a continued connection will lead to ruin, as the king will use his negative to suppress American prosperity. Paine proposes a plan for a continental government with annual assemblies, equal representation, and a rotating presidency, and calls for the immediate establishment of a constitution to avoid future tyranny.
Chapter 5
Of the Present Ability of America: With Some Miscellaneous Reflections
Paine argues that the time for American independence has arrived, emphasizing the continent's military strength, unity, and economic potential. He dismisses concerns about readiness, advocates for a continental charter and equal representation, and warns against delaying independence. He also discusses the advantages of a national debt and the necessity of forming a government from first principles.
Chapter 6
Appendix
Paine argues that American independence from Britain is both inevitable and immediately necessary, contrasting the simplicity of independence with the complexity and danger of reconciliation. He emphasizes that delay weakens America's military capability and economic potential, and warns that without a clear break, the continent risks internal division and collapse.
Chapter 7
The Republican Proclamation
This chapter presents a proclamation declaring that King Louis XVI has effectively abdicated the throne by his flight and that the nation no longer owes him obedience. It argues that monarchy is a burdensome and dangerous institution, calls for the end of royal rule, and emphasizes the dignity and self-respect of a free people.
Chapter 8
Anti-Monarchal Essay
Paine reflects on the joy of the French Republic's establishment, cautioning that the abolition of royalty must go beyond removing the king to dismantling the institution itself. He argues that monarchy is absurd and detestable, while the Republic is natural and reasonable, urging citizens to understand the reasons for their newfound freedom.
Chapter 9
Royalty
This chapter launches a fierce critique of monarchy and hereditary succession, arguing that royalty is an absurd and harmful institution born of brigandage and maintained by superstition and force. It contrasts hereditary rule with representative government, defends the Rights of Man, and contends that monarchy inevitably leads to aristocracy, excessive taxation, and the degradation of human character.
Chapter 10
Declaration of Rights
This chapter presents a comprehensive declaration of natural rights, including liberty, equality, security, property, and resistance to oppression, and outlines the principles of law, sovereignty, and social guarantee that underpin a free government.
Chapter 11
Dissertation on First Principles of Government
Paine argues that hereditary government has no right to exist, contrasting it with the representative system based on natural rights. He examines the origin of hereditary power, dismissing claims of right by time or law, and critiques property qualifications for voting, advocating for universal equal rights as the foundation of legitimate government.
Chapter 12
The Decline and Fall of the English System of Finance
Paine argues that the English funding system, like all paper money systems, is doomed to collapse. He contrasts it with the American and French experiments, showing that while England's system lasts longer by keeping capital out of sight, it is fundamentally insolvent and approaching bankruptcy. He predicts the system will fail within Mr. Pitt's lifetime, exposes its fraudulent nature to neutral nations, and retorts Pitt's own phrase against him, declaring England's finances are on the verge of bankruptcy.
Chapter 13
Agrarian Justice
Paine argues that civilization, while bringing benefits, has also created poverty and inequality. He proposes a system of ground-rent and inheritance tax to compensate every person for the loss of their natural inheritance to the land, which was originally common property. The plan includes a national fund to provide payments to all citizens at age 21 and pensions to those over 50, funded by a 10% tax on inheritances. Paine contends that such a system would secure property, reduce social antipathies, and complement the revolution in government by creating a revolution in civilization.
Chapter 14
Editor’s Introduction
The editor introduces Thomas Paine's pamphlet 'Agrarian Justice,' first published in Paris in 1797, written during the winter of 1795–6 while Paine was recovering at Monroe's house. The introduction contextualizes the pamphlet within the rise of French socialism, particularly the Babouvist movement led by François Noel Babeuf, whose execution for conspiracy is noted. Paine's plan to tax inheritances of land is presented as a precursor to later economic reforms, and the political turmoil of the era is summarized.
Chapter 15
Author's Inscription
Thomas Paine addresses the French Legislature and Executive Directory, dedicating his work on agrarian justice and natural property rights. He critiques the French Constitution for failing to maintain universal suffrage, linking this defect to the Babeuf conspiracy. Paine distinguishes natural property (earth, air, water) from artificial property, arguing for equality in natural rights and the sacred right of voting. He warns against both royalist and extremist threats, asserting that society's true end is self-maintenance, not monarchy.
Chapter 16
Author's English Preface
Paine explains the origin of 'Agrarian Justice,' written in 1795-96, and his decision to publish it in response to a sermon by Bishop Watson that claims God made rich and poor. Paine argues that God made only male and female, giving the earth to all, and that true religion consists in doing good to improve the human condition.
Chapter 17
Agrarian Justice
Paine argues that civilization, while bringing benefits, has also created poverty and inequality. He proposes a system of ground-rent and inheritance tax to compensate every person for the loss of their natural inheritance to the land, which was originally common property. The plan includes a national fund to provide payments to all citizens at age 21 and pensions to those over 50, funded by a 10% tax on inheritances. Paine contends that such a system would secure property, reduce social antipathies, and complement the revolution in government by creating a revolution in civilization.
Chapter 18
Means by Which the Fund Is to Be Created
Paine outlines a plan for a national fund to compensate individuals for the loss of their natural inheritance due to the system of landed property. He proposes a tax on inheritances, paid at the time of property transfer upon death, which would provide every person at age 21 with a sum to start life, and annual payments after age 50. The plan is framed as an act of justice, not charity, and is intended to prevent poverty, reduce social inequality, and support the revolution in civilization that accompanies the revolution in government.
Chapter 19
Means for Carrying the Proposed Plan Into Execution, and to Render It at the Same Time Conducive to the Public Interest
Paine outlines a detailed financial mechanism for implementing his proposed inheritance tax and national fund. Each canton elects commissioners to register property, and the principal heir of a deceased person must pay a tenth of the property's value into a national bank. The bank issues notes secured by these bonds, which are used to fund pensions for the aged and compensations for young adults. Paine emphasizes the security of the notes, backed by real property, and describes how the system will generate its own means of execution.
Chapter 20
Endnotes
This chapter provides editorial endnotes and commentary on Thomas Paine's works, including his involvement in drafting the French Constitution and Declaration of Rights, his critique of monarchy and hereditary succession, his analysis of the English funding system, and his predictions regarding the Bank of England's gold suspension. It also includes historical references to the French Revolution, the abolition of royalty, and the concept of a Declaration of Rights as a safeguard against despotism.
