Discourses · Chapter
VIII: How We Must Exercise Ourselves Against Appearances (Φαντασίας) explained
This chapter instructs the reader to train daily against appearances, just as one practices against sophistical questions.
What happens
This chapter instructs the reader to train daily against appearances, just as one practices against sophistical questions. It presents a method of responding to external events—such as a son's death, disinheritance, or condemnation by Caesar—by recognizing that these are not within the power of the will and therefore not evils. The only true good or evil lies in our own judgments and afflictions, which are within our power. The chapter also criticizes those who complain about Zeus's governance, reminding us that we have been given the capacity for endurance and magnanimity, and that the door is always open to exit life without complaint.
Themes in this chapter
Dichotomy of Control
The chapter centers on distinguishing between things within our power (judgments, afflictions) and those not (death, disinheritance, condemnation), and training ourselves to respond accordingly.
Desire and Aversion
The exercise against appearances directly addresses how we should direct our desires and aversions: only toward what is within our will, not toward external events.
Characters to notice
- Epictetus
The speaker and teacher, who uses examples and personal observation to illustrate the practice of exercising against appearances.
- Caesar
Mentioned as an example of an external authority whose actions (condemning a person) are beyond the power of the will and therefore not an evil.
- Zeus
Addressed as the divine figure who has given humans the capacity to endure and be happy, and who has opened the door to exit life if displeased.
- Italicus
A philosopher in repute, observed by Epictetus, who complained to his friends and pointed to Epictetus as an example of what he feared becoming.
Key passages
“A certain person's son is dead. Answer: the thing is not within the power of the will; it is not an evil.”
When someone's son dies, the correct response is to recognize that death is not under our control and therefore not a true evil.
This illustrates the Stoic practice of immediately categorizing external events as indifferent.
“But Zeus, you say, does not do right in these matters. Why? because he has made you capable of endurance? because he has made you magnanimous? because he has taken, from that which befalls you, the power of being evils? because it is in your power to be happy while you are suffering what you suffer; because he has opened the door to you, when things do not please you? Man, go out and do not complain.”
If you accuse Zeus of injustice, consider that he has given you the ability to endure, to be magnanimous, and to choose happiness even in suffering. He has also given you the option to exit life if it displeases you. So stop complaining and either accept or leave.
This passage emphasizes the Stoic view of providence and personal responsibility, and the ultimate freedom to exit life.