Discourses on Livy · Chapter
XIV explained
Machiavelli discusses how the Romans used religious auspices pragmatically to maintain military morale and public confidence, showing that they would proceed with necessary actions even when omens were unfavorable, while carefully managing
What happens
Machiavelli discusses how the Romans used religious auspices pragmatically to maintain military morale and public confidence, showing that they would proceed with necessary actions even when omens were unfavorable, while carefully managing appearances to avoid impiety. He contrasts the prudent handling of auspices by consul Papirius, who turned a false omen into a victory, with the rashness of Appius Pulcher, whose disrespect led to defeat and condemnation.
Themes in this chapter
Religion as a Political Instrument
The Romans used auspices to instill confidence in soldiers and justify necessary actions, even manipulating or disregarding them while maintaining a show of piety.
Leadership and Moral Character
Contrast between Papirius's prudent and effective handling of religious rites and Appius's rashness, showing how a leader's discretion affects outcomes.
Necessity and Reason of State
When military necessity demanded battle, the Romans proceeded regardless of adverse omens, using clever interpretation to avoid undermining religious authority.
Characters to notice
- Papirius Cursor
Consul who fought the Samnites; he manipulated the auspices to justify battle and punished the soothsayer for lying, ensuring the army's confidence.
- Spurius Papirius
Nephew of the consul Papirius; reported the soothsayers' disclosure that the fowls had not pecked.
- Appius Claudius
Mentioned as Appius Pulcher, who in Sicily during the First Punic War rashly threw the sacred fowls into the sea after they refused to feed, leading to defeat and condemnation.
Key passages
“For Papirius being encamped over against the Samnites, and perceiving that if he fought, victory was certain, and consequently being eager to engage, desired the omens to be taken. The fowls refused to peck; but the chief soothsayer observing the eagerness of the soldiers to fight and the confidence felt both by them and by their captain, not to deprive the army of such an opportunity of glory, reported to the consul that the auspices were favourable.”
Papirius, confident of victory, ordered the auspices; when the fowls did not eat, the chief soothsayer lied and declared the omens favorable to avoid demoralizing the eager army.
Illustrates the pragmatic manipulation of religious signs to maintain troop morale.
“And contriving, in this way to make his designs tally with the auspices, he joined battle, without the army knowing that the ordinances of religion had in any degree been disregarded.”
Papirius arranged events so that his plans appeared to align with the omens, and the army remained unaware that religious protocols had been violated.
Shows how the Romans prioritized the appearance of piety over strict adherence.
“For this he was condemned at Rome, while Papirius was honoured; not so much because the one had gained while the other had lost a battle, as because in their treatment of the auspices the one had behaved discreetly, the other with rashness.”
Appius was punished and Papirius rewarded not for victory or defeat, but for their respective prudence and recklessness in handling religious rites.
Emphasizes that the manner of dealing with religion was more important than the outcome.