Discourses on Livy · Chapter
Chapter IX explained
Machiavelli argues that to found or reform a commonwealth, a single ruler must have absolute authority, as seen in Romulus's actions and the failed reforms of Agis and Cleomenes of Sparta.
What happens
Machiavelli argues that to found or reform a commonwealth, a single ruler must have absolute authority, as seen in Romulus's actions and the failed reforms of Agis and Cleomenes of Sparta. He contends that such means are justified by the end of public benefit, but warns against transmitting absolute power to successors.
Themes in this chapter
Necessity and Reason of State
Machiavelli argues that extraordinary and violent actions are justified when necessary to found or reform a state for the common good.
Leadership and Moral Character
The chapter examines the prudence and moderation required of a sole founder, and the danger of transmitting absolute power to a successor.
Virtù and Fortune
Cleomenes's failure is attributed to the power of the Macedonians and the weakness of other Greek states, illustrating the role of fortune in thwarting virtuous plans.
Characters to notice
- Romulus
Founder of Rome who killed his brother Remus and consented to the death of Titus Tatius; excused because his actions were for the common good and he later created a senate.
- Agis
King of Sparta who attempted to restore Lycurgan laws but was slain by the Ephori for appearing to seek tyranny.
- Cleomenes
Successor of Agis who killed the Ephori and renewed Lycurgus's laws, but was overpowered by the Macedonians before completing his reforms.
- Lycurgus
Spartan lawgiver whose laws Agis and Cleomenes sought to restore; cited as an example of a founder with full power.
- Moses
Cited as an example of a founder who shaped laws for public advantage using full powers.
- Solon
Athenian lawgiver cited as an example of a founder who shaped laws for public advantage.
Key passages
“he who gives new institutions to a state must stand alone; and that for the deaths of Remus and Tatius, Romulus is to be excused rather than blamed.”
A single ruler must act alone to establish new laws, and Romulus should be forgiven for killing his brother and colleague because his goal was the public good.
Machiavelli's central thesis that sole authority is necessary for founding, and that such acts are excusable if the end is beneficial.
“For although the act condemn the doer, the end may justify him; and when, as in the case of Romulus, the end is good, it will always excuse the means.”
Even if an action is blameworthy in itself, a good outcome can justify it, as with Romulus's killings.
Classic statement of the 'ends justify the means' principle applied to political founding.
“Such a person ought however to be so prudent and moderate as to avoid transmitting the absolute authority he acquires, as an inheritance to another; for as men are, by nature, more prone to evil than to good, a successor may turn to ambitious ends the power which his predecessor has used to promote worthy ends.”
A founder must be wise enough not to pass on absolute power, because a successor might abuse it for selfish ambition.
Machiavelli warns against hereditary autocracy and emphasizes the need for institutional checks.