Discourses on Livy · Chapter
Book I explained
Machiavelli introduces his project of recovering the political wisdom of ancient Rome through Livy's history, arguing that the study of ancient republics can provide lessons for contemporary political life.
What happens
Machiavelli introduces his project of recovering the political wisdom of ancient Rome through Livy's history, arguing that the study of ancient republics can provide lessons for contemporary political life. He discusses the founding of Rome, the role of Romulus and Numa in establishing laws and religion, and the necessity of a virtuous founder to impose order. The chapter explores the cyclical nature of political regimes, the importance of maintaining republican liberty through conflict between the nobles and the plebs, and the dangers of corruption and ingratitude. Machiavelli emphasizes that good laws and military strength are the foundations of a stable state, and that republics must be willing to use necessary force to preserve themselves.
Themes in this chapter
Virtù and Fortune
Machiavelli argues that a founder's virtù (skill, strength, wisdom) can overcome fortune, as seen in Romulus and Numa, but that fortune also plays a role in the rise and fall of states.
Religion as a Political Instrument
Numa's introduction of religion is praised as essential for maintaining order and obedience in the republic, showing religion as a tool for political control.
Historical Cyclicality and Human Nature
Machiavelli describes the cycle of regimes (monarchy, aristocracy, democracy, and their corrupt forms) and argues that human nature remains constant, making history a source of political lessons.
Ingratitude and Suspicion in Republics
The chapter discusses how republics often treat their great citizens with ingratitude, as seen in the exile of Camillus and the suspicion toward Scipio, and how this can be a danger to liberty.
Characters to notice
- Romulus
Founder of Rome; his actions in establishing the city and its early institutions are discussed, including the necessity of his fratricide for the founding.
- Numa
Second king of Rome; credited with introducing religious institutions to civilize the Romans and maintain order.
- Titus Livius
Roman historian whose work 'Decades' provides the historical material for Machiavelli's political analysis.
- Brutus
Junius Brutus; founder of the Roman Republic, noted for his severity in executing his own sons to maintain liberty.
- Appius Claudius
Decemvir whose tyrannical behavior and the death of Virginia led to the fall of the Decemvirate and restoration of republican liberty.
Key passages
“Those who read what the beginning of their city was and by whom it was founded will not marvel that so much excellence was preserved in it for so many centuries.”
Understanding the origins of a city and its founder explains why it maintained greatness for so long.
Machiavelli emphasizes the importance of a virtuous founder in establishing a lasting republic.
“It is necessary to him who would establish a republic and give it laws to presuppose that all men are wicked and that they will always give vent to the malignity that is in their minds when opportunity offers.”
A founder of a republic must assume that people are inherently selfish and will act badly when they can.
This pessimistic view of human nature underlies Machiavelli's political realism.
“The desires of free peoples are rarely pernicious to liberty, for they arise either from being oppressed or from suspicion that they are about to be oppressed.”
The demands of the people are usually not harmful to freedom, because they stem from actual or feared oppression.
Machiavelli defends the role of popular participation in a republic.
“A republic without citizens of repute cannot stand, nor can it be governed well.”
A republic needs distinguished citizens to survive and be governed properly.
The importance of elite leadership in a republic is highlighted.
