Dialogues · Chapters
Chapters explained
Chapter companions for Dialogues by Plato.
Chapter 1
Dedication
The author dedicates his work to his former pupils at Balliol College and the University of Oxford, acknowledging their enduring friendship and support over fifty years.
Chapter 2
Preface to the First Edition
In the preface, the translator discusses the challenges of determining the authenticity of Plato's dialogues, referencing the views of Schaarschmidt and Grote. He acknowledges the variety of doctrine and style across the dialogues, defends the inclusion of works like the Sophist and Politicus, and expresses his respect for Grote while disagreeing on several points, including the value of the Laws and the Sophists. He also thanks his collaborators and lists the scholarly works that aided his translation.
Chapter 3
Preface to the Second and Third Editions
In this preface, the translator discusses the challenges of translating Plato into idiomatic English, acknowledges contributions from various scholars, and defends the spuriousness of the Platonic Epistles by citing internal inconsistencies, historical blunders, and lack of early testimony. He also notes Dr. Henry Jackson's theory of two distinct stages in Plato's theory of Ideas.
Chapter 4
Dialogues
This chapter presents a collection of dialogues featuring Socrates and various interlocutors, exploring themes of justice, virtue, knowledge, and the ideal state through dialectical inquiry.
Chapter 5
Charmides
Socrates discusses the nature of temperance (sophrosyne) with Charmides and Critias, exploring definitions such as 'doing one's own business' and 'knowledge of knowledge.' The dialogue ends in aporia, with Socrates admitting defeat in defining temperance, yet Charmides agrees to be 'charmed' by Socrates daily. The Thracian charm metaphor emphasizes curing the soul before the body.
Chapter 6
Charmides
Socrates discusses the nature of temperance (sophrosyne) with Charmides and Critias, exploring definitions such as 'doing one's own business' and 'knowledge of knowledge.' The dialogue ends in aporia, with Socrates admitting defeat in defining temperance, yet Charmides agrees to be 'charmed' by Socrates daily. The Thracian charm metaphor emphasizes curing the soul before the body.
Chapter 7
Lysis
Socrates engages in a dialectical inquiry with Lysis and Menexenus, exploring the nature of friendship. He examines and rejects several definitions: that like is friend to like, that opposites attract, and that the good alone are friends. Ultimately, he proposes that what is neither good nor evil becomes a friend of the good because of the presence of evil, though the argument remains inconclusive.
Chapter 8
Some Questions Relating to Friendship
This chapter explores various philosophical and practical questions about friendship, drawing on ancient Greek thought (especially Plato's Lysis) and modern considerations. It examines whether friendship is between similars or dissimilars, whether it exists only among the good, the nature of unrequited friendship, the permanence of friendships, the role of loyalty, and the conditions under which friendships may be dissolved. It also discusses the modern context where friendship has a lower place due to the emphasis on love and marriage, and offers reflections on the duties and memories that persist even after a friendship ends.
Chapter 9
Lysis
Socrates engages in a dialectical inquiry with Lysis and Menexenus, exploring the nature of friendship. He examines and rejects several definitions: that like is friend to like, that opposites attract, and that the good alone are friends. Ultimately, he proposes that what is neither good nor evil becomes a friend of the good because of the presence of evil, though the argument remains inconclusive.
Chapter 10
Laches
Socrates, Lysimachus, Melesias, Nicias, and Laches discuss the education of their sons, focusing on whether training in arms makes young men better. The conversation shifts to defining courage, with Nicias proposing it is knowledge of future goods and evils, while Socrates challenges this by arguing that knowledge of good and evil applies to past, present, and future alike, thus expanding the definition beyond a mere part of virtue.
Chapter 11
Laches
Socrates, Lysimachus, Melesias, Nicias, and Laches discuss the education of their sons, focusing on whether training in arms makes young men better. The conversation shifts to defining courage, with Nicias proposing it is knowledge of future goods and evils, while Socrates challenges this by arguing that knowledge of good and evil applies to past, present, and future alike, thus expanding the definition beyond a mere part of virtue.
Chapter 12
Protagoras
Socrates and Protagoras engage in a dialectical inquiry into the nature of virtue, debating whether it is a single whole composed of distinct parts (like justice, temperance, courage) and whether virtue can be taught. Protagoras argues that virtue is teachable, citing the universal practice of punishment aimed at prevention, while Socrates presses for a clearer definition, leading to a paradoxical conclusion that if virtue is knowledge it can be taught, but if not, it cannot. The dialogue ends with an agreement to continue the discussion later.
Chapter 13
Protagoras
Socrates and Protagoras engage in a dialectical inquiry into the nature of virtue, debating whether it is a single whole composed of distinct parts (like justice, temperance, courage) and whether virtue can be taught. Protagoras argues that virtue is teachable, citing the universal practice of punishment aimed at prevention, while Socrates presses for a clearer definition, leading to a paradoxical conclusion that if virtue is knowledge it can be taught, but if not, it cannot. The dialogue ends with an agreement to continue the discussion later.
Chapter 14
Euthydemus
Socrates engages in a dialectical encounter with the sophist brothers Euthydemus and Dionysodorus, who use eristic arguments to confuse and entrap the young Cleinias. Socrates contrasts their playful, deceptive logic with a serious inquiry into the nature of wisdom, virtue, and happiness, ultimately advocating for genuine philosophical education.
Chapter 15
Euthydemus
Socrates engages in a dialectical encounter with the sophist brothers Euthydemus and Dionysodorus, who use eristic arguments to confuse and entrap the young Cleinias. Socrates contrasts their playful, deceptive logic with a serious inquiry into the nature of wisdom, virtue, and happiness, ultimately advocating for genuine philosophical education.
Chapter 16
Cratylus
Socrates, Hermogenes, and Cratylus debate the nature of names: whether they are natural or conventional. Socrates questions the stability of knowledge in a world of flux, and Cratylus defends Heraclitean flux, while Hermogenes argues for convention. The dialogue explores the relationship between names, truth, and reality.
Chapter 17
Cratylus
Socrates, Hermogenes, and Cratylus debate the nature of names: whether they are natural or conventional. Socrates questions the stability of knowledge in a world of flux, and Cratylus defends Heraclitean flux, while Hermogenes argues for convention. The dialogue explores the relationship between names, truth, and reality.
Chapter 18
Phaedrus
Socrates and Phaedrus discuss the nature of rhetoric, writing, and philosophy, concluding that true art of speaking requires knowledge of truth and the dialectical method, and that written words are inferior to the living word of knowledge implanted in the soul.
Chapter 19
On the Decline of Greek Literature
This chapter examines the decline of Greek literature, attributing it to the rise of rhetoric and sophistry, the loss of creative genius, and the proliferation of pedantic scholarship. Plato's critique of rhetoricians in the 'Phaedrus' is used as a starting point to explore how formalism and lack of truth led to a thousand-year literary stagnation, broken only by a few later writers. The chapter also considers whether education and broader cultural exchange might avert a similar decline in modern times.
Chapter 20
Phaedrus
Socrates and Phaedrus discuss the nature of rhetoric, writing, and philosophy, concluding that true art of speaking requires knowledge of truth and the dialectical method, and that written words are inferior to the living word of knowledge implanted in the soul.
Chapter 21
Ion
Socrates engages the rhapsode Ion in a dialogue about his expertise in Homer. Socrates argues that Ion's ability to speak well about Homer but not other poets stems from divine inspiration rather than art or knowledge, demonstrating that true understanding of a subject would apply universally across all poets who treat the same themes.
Chapter 22
Ion
Socrates engages the rhapsode Ion in a dialogue about his expertise in Homer. Socrates argues that Ion's ability to speak well about Homer but not other poets stems from divine inspiration rather than art or knowledge, demonstrating that true understanding of a subject would apply universally across all poets who treat the same themes.
Chapter 23
Symposium
Pausanias delivers a speech distinguishing between the heavenly and common forms of love, arguing that honorable love is based on virtue and the improvement of the soul rather than physical attraction or material gain. He describes how Athenian customs both honor and shame love, and emphasizes that true love seeks the everlasting possession of the good. Diotima's teachings are recalled, explaining love as the desire for procreation in beauty and the pursuit of immortality through generation.
Chapter 24
Symposium
Pausanias delivers a speech distinguishing between the heavenly and common forms of love, arguing that honorable love is based on virtue and the improvement of the soul rather than physical attraction or material gain. He describes how Athenian customs both honor and shame love, and emphasizes that true love seeks the everlasting possession of the good. Diotima's teachings are recalled, explaining love as the desire for procreation in beauty and the pursuit of immortality through generation.
Chapter 25
Meno
Socrates and Meno explore the nature of virtue, questioning whether it can be taught, acquired by practice, or comes by nature. Socrates famously professes ignorance of virtue's essence, leading to a discussion on definitions, the method of hypothesis, and an examination of knowledge as recollection through a geometry lesson with a slave boy.
Chapter 26
On the Ideas of Plato
This chapter examines Plato's doctrine of ideas, arguing that popular interpretations have turned poetic and metaphorical expressions into rigid dogma. It traces the evolution of the theory across several dialogues, noting inconsistencies and shifts in Plato's thought, and compares ancient idealism with modern philosophical developments from Bacon to Kant.
Chapter 27
Meno
Socrates and Meno explore the nature of virtue, questioning whether it can be taught, acquired by practice, or comes by nature. Socrates famously professes ignorance of virtue's essence, leading to a discussion on definitions, the method of hypothesis, and an examination of knowledge as recollection through a geometry lesson with a slave boy.
Chapter 28
Euthyphro
Socrates encounters Euthyphro at the Porch of the King Archon, where Euthyphro is prosecuting his own father for murder. Socrates, himself indicted for impiety by Meletus, seeks to learn from Euthyphro the true nature of piety and impiety. Through a series of dialectical exchanges, Euthyphro offers several definitions—first, that piety is prosecuting wrongdoers; second, that piety is what is dear to the gods; and finally, that piety is a part of justice. Each definition is shown to be inadequate, leading Euthyphro to break off the conversation abruptly.
Chapter 29
Euthyphro
Socrates encounters Euthyphro at the Porch of the King Archon, where Euthyphro is prosecuting his own father for murder. Socrates, himself indicted for impiety by Meletus, seeks to learn from Euthyphro the true nature of piety and impiety. Through a series of dialectical exchanges, Euthyphro offers several definitions—first, that piety is prosecuting wrongdoers; second, that piety is what is dear to the gods; and finally, that piety is a part of justice. Each definition is shown to be inadequate, leading Euthyphro to break off the conversation abruptly.
Chapter 30
Apology
Socrates defends his philosophical mission as a divine command, arguing that his duty to God supersedes human authority. He explains his cross-examination of politicians, poets, and artisans, concluding that true wisdom lies in recognizing one's own ignorance. He refuses to abandon his practice even under threat of death, insisting that virtue and care for the soul are paramount. After being found guilty, he proposes a paradoxical penalty—maintenance in the Prytaneum—and warns that killing him will harm Athens more than himself.
Chapter 31
Apology
Socrates defends his philosophical mission as a divine command, arguing that his duty to God supersedes human authority. He explains his cross-examination of politicians, poets, and artisans, concluding that true wisdom lies in recognizing one's own ignorance. He refuses to abandon his practice even under threat of death, insisting that virtue and care for the soul are paramount. After being found guilty, he proposes a paradoxical penalty—maintenance in the Prytaneum—and warns that killing him will harm Athens more than himself.
Chapter 32
Crito
Socrates, awaiting execution in prison, is visited by his wealthy friend Crito, who urges him to escape. Socrates refuses, arguing that one must never do wrong or return evil for evil, and that he has a binding agreement with the laws of Athens to obey them, even when they punish him unjustly. Through a personified dialogue with the Laws, Socrates concludes that escaping would violate his civic duty and harm the state, so he chooses to accept his sentence.
Chapter 33
Crito
Socrates, awaiting execution in prison, is visited by his wealthy friend Crito, who urges him to escape. Socrates refuses, arguing that one must never do wrong or return evil for evil, and that he has a binding agreement with the laws of Athens to obey them, even when they punish him unjustly. Through a personified dialogue with the Laws, Socrates concludes that escaping would violate his civic duty and harm the state, so he chooses to accept his sentence.
Chapter 34
Phaedo
Socrates discusses the immortality of the soul, the importance of virtue and wisdom for the afterlife, and the nature of the earth and the cosmos. He addresses doubts raised by Simmias and Cebes, reaffirming the doctrine of recollection and refuting the idea that the soul is a harmony.
Chapter 35
Phaedo
Socrates discusses the immortality of the soul, the importance of virtue and wisdom for the afterlife, and the nature of the earth and the cosmos. He addresses doubts raised by Simmias and Cebes, reaffirming the doctrine of recollection and refuting the idea that the soul is a harmony.
Chapter 36
Gorgias
Socrates argues that rhetoric is not an art but a form of flattery, akin to cookery for the soul, and that the true path to happiness lies in justice and virtue, not in the pursuit of pleasure or power. He exhorts Callicles and others to follow the argument that doing injustice is worse than suffering it, and that punishment and chastisement are necessary for the soul's improvement.
Chapter 37
The Myths of Plato
This chapter surveys the major myths and parables in Plato's dialogues, including the four longer myths in the Phaedrus, Phaedo, Gorgias, and Republic, as well as other fables and continuous images. It discusses their literary and philosophical significance, their treatment of the soul's immortality, the state of innocence, and the contrast between divine and human government, emphasizing Plato's unique ability to blend poetry, conversation, and abstract thought.
Chapter 38
Gorgias
Socrates argues that rhetoric is not an art but a form of flattery, akin to cookery for the soul, and that the true path to happiness lies in justice and virtue, not in the pursuit of pleasure or power. He exhorts Callicles and others to follow the argument that doing injustice is worse than suffering it, and that punishment and chastisement are necessary for the soul's improvement.
Chapter 39
Republic
Socrates and his interlocutors explore the nature of justice, the ideal state, and the soul, culminating in the condemnation of poetry and the description of the tyrannical man.
Chapter 40
Introduction and Analysis
This chapter discusses the role of the legislator in determining good and evil, the nature of justice and injustice, the classification of crimes as voluntary or involuntary, the importance of arithmetic in education, the appointment of magistrates, and the unity of the four virtues (courage, temperance, justice, wisdom) as the object of the statesman. It also touches on the founding of a colony, the election of guardians of the law, and the need for philosophical knowledge of virtue and the divine.
Chapter 41
The Republic
Socrates discusses the challenges facing the philosopher in society, the importance of education and virtue, the choice of lives in the afterlife, and the necessity for philosophers to rule in a just state.
Chapter 42
Book I
The Athenian Stranger, Cleinias, and Megillus discuss the purpose of legislation, arguing that laws should aim at virtue as a whole, not just military courage. They explore the nature of education, the role of law in guiding human passions, and the superiority of peace over war, criticizing the Spartan and Cretan focus on warfare.
Chapter 43
Book II
The Athenian Stranger discusses the nature of education, pleasure, and pain, arguing that the just life is also the most pleasant. He emphasizes the role of the legislator in shaping citizens' beliefs through songs, tales, and festivals, and proposes a system of three choruses to instill virtue in the young. The dialogue explores the harmony of pleasure and justice, and the necessity of persuading citizens that the just life is the happiest.
Chapter 44
Book III
The Athenian Stranger discusses the decline of states due to immoderate power and the importance of distributing honor based on virtue, particularly temperance. He examines the failures of Persian and Spartan governments, emphasizing the need for balanced power and the rule of law to prevent tyranny and preserve the state.
Chapter 45
Book IV
The Athenian Stranger discusses the role of the legislator in persuading citizens to virtue, using prefaces to laws to gently guide them. He compares the legislator to a physician who treats freemen with discourse and persuasion rather than mere commands. He argues that the quickest way to establish a good state is through a virtuous tyrant who cooperates with a wise legislator, and he outlines the order of ease for political change: tyranny, monarchy, democracy, and oligarchy. The chapter also touches on the need for precise definitions in laws, using funerals as an example, and begins with marriage laws as the foundation of the state.
Chapter 46
Book V
The Athenian Stranger discusses the importance of the soul, the proper distribution of wealth, and the role of the legislator in creating a harmonious state. He emphasizes reverence, obedience to laws, and the need to avoid extremes of poverty and wealth. The chapter outlines a detailed plan for dividing the city and land into twelve portions, with 5,040 lots, each composed of two sections, and the establishment of four property classes to ensure stability and prevent faction.
Chapter 47
Book VI
The Athenian Stranger continues the foundation of the ideal city, focusing on the number 5,040 and its divisions for tribes, religious festivals, and marriage laws. He emphasizes the importance of justice, natural equality, and the mingling of different natures in marriages for the benefit of the state. The chapter details the roles of various officers, including wardens of the city, agora, and temples, and outlines the process for legislative adjustments over time.
Chapter 48
Book VII
The Athenian Stranger discusses the nurture and education of children, emphasizing the importance of physical exercise even before birth, the role of movement in health, and the regulation of hunting. He argues that the best education improves mind and body, and that the state should oversee the upbringing of children, including compulsory education for both sexes. He also reflects on the proper attitude towards seriousness and play, suggesting that humans are playthings of God and should live in peace, engaging in sacrifices, singing, and dancing.
Chapter 49
Book VIII
The Athenian Stranger discusses the causes that prevent states from effectively pursuing martial arts and noble aims, focusing on the love of wealth and flawed forms of government. He proposes laws for military training and contests, and examines the nature of love and friendship, distinguishing between virtuous and base forms, and advocating for laws that promote the former.
Chapter 50
Book IX
The Athenian Stranger discusses the necessity of legislating for crimes in a well-regulated state, acknowledging the disgrace in anticipating such offenses. He outlines laws for temple robbing, distinguishes between hurt and injustice, and categorizes the sources of crime as passion, pleasure, and ignorance. The dialogue emphasizes that punishment should aim to improve the offender or remove incurable criminals, and that laws should be written with the wisdom of loving parents rather than tyrants.
Chapter 51
Book X
The Athenian Stranger elaborates on divine justice, the indestructibility of the soul, and the moral order of the universe. He argues that the Gods are not to be propitiated by gifts or sacrifices from the wicked, and that justice and virtue are the true means of salvation. He proposes laws against private religious rites and impiety, emphasizing that the state must regulate worship to prevent corruption.
Chapter 52
Timaeus
Socrates recalls the ideal state from the previous day's discussion and expresses a desire to see it in action, particularly in war. He praises Timaeus, Critias, and Hermocrates as uniquely qualified to narrate such a story. Critias then recounts an ancient tradition from Solon about the great deeds of ancient Athens, including the story of Atlantis, which he heard from his grandfather. The chapter also includes Timaeus' cosmological account of the creation of the world, the nature of the soul, and the construction of the human body, particularly the eyes and vision.
Chapter 53
Introduction and Analysis
This chapter discusses the role of the legislator in determining good and evil, the nature of justice and injustice, the classification of crimes as voluntary or involuntary, the importance of arithmetic in education, the appointment of magistrates, and the unity of the four virtues (courage, temperance, justice, wisdom) as the object of the statesman. It also touches on the founding of a colony, the election of guardians of the law, and the need for philosophical knowledge of virtue and the divine.
Chapter 54
Timaeus I
Socrates summarizes the ideal state from the Republic and expresses a desire to see it in action. Critias recounts Solon's story of Atlantis, learned from Egyptian priests, who describe ancient Athens and its conflict with Atlantis. Timaeus then delivers a cosmological account of the creation of the universe, the nature of the four elements, the formation of the world soul, and the creation of human bodies and souls, including the functions of the liver, spleen, bones, flesh, and eyes.
Chapter 55
§ II
This chapter explores the early Greek philosophers' approach to understanding nature, emphasizing their reliance on analogy, personification, and abstraction. It contrasts their methods with modern science, noting their tendency to see unity in the cosmos, their struggle with the influence of language, and their use of mathematics and number to explain both celestial and human phenomena. The text defends ancient philosophy against modern criticisms, arguing that their speculative methods were appropriate for their time and laid essential groundwork for later thought.
Chapter 56
§ III
This chapter explores Plato's cosmology as presented in the Timaeus, focusing on the creation of the world by a divine craftsman who imposes order and goodness upon pre-existing chaos. It discusses the metaphysical principles of the Same, the Other, and Essence, the formation of the world soul and body, the nature of time as a moving image of eternity, and the concept of space as a containing vessel or nurse of generation. The chapter also reflects on the limitations of language in describing eternal realities and the interplay between the intelligible and sensible realms.
Chapter 57
§ IV
This chapter examines Plato's astronomy as presented in the Timaeus, focusing on the two principles of the same and the other, the composition of the world soul, the motion of the heavens, and the debated question of whether Plato believed the earth rotates on its axis or remains immobile at the center of the universe.
Chapter 58
§ V
This chapter explores Plato's analogy between the soul of the world and the soul of man, detailing the tripartite division of the human soul (rational, passionate, appetitive) and their physical seats (brain, heart, liver, belly). It discusses the influence of necessity, the involuntary nature of vice, and the relationship between soul and body, highlighting Plato's blend of idealism and fatalism.
Chapter 59
§ VI
This chapter examines Plato's physiological theories as presented in the Timaeus, highlighting his limited anatomical knowledge and his tendency to model the human body as a microcosm of the universe. It discusses his theories of respiration, digestion, and the circulation of blood, emphasizing his reliance on principles such as the impossibility of a vacuum and the attraction of like to like. The chapter also notes Plato's skepticism toward aggressive medical treatments and his belief in the interdependence of mind and body.
Chapter 60
§ VII
Plato's theory of sensation is explored, describing sight as a combination of internal and external light, color as variations in light particles, and other senses like smell, taste, and hearing as mechanical processes involving contraction, dilation, and transmission through the body. The chapter also notes Plato's views on the sensitivity of body parts and the limitations of human knowledge in understanding sensory phenomena.
Chapter 61
§ VIII
This chapter explores the Timaeus, focusing on Plato's cosmology, the goodness of the Creator, the relationship between the sensible and rational worlds, and the harmony of the soul with the cosmos. It also discusses the degeneracy of philosophy in later commentators like Proclus, contrasts the Timaeus Locrus, and reflects on Platonic irony and the youthfulness of Hellenic culture compared to Egypt.
Chapter 62
Timaeus
Socrates recalls the ideal state from the previous day's discussion and expresses a desire to see it in action, particularly in war. He praises Timaeus, Critias, and Hermocrates as uniquely qualified to narrate such a story. Critias then recounts an ancient tradition from Solon about the great deeds of ancient Athens, including the story of Atlantis, which he heard from his grandfather. The chapter also includes Timaeus' cosmological account of the creation of the world, the nature of the soul, and the construction of the human body, particularly the eyes and vision.
Chapter 63
Critias
Critias begins his narrative of ancient Athens and Atlantis, describing the war between the Athenians and the Atlanteans, the divine allotment of lands, the laws and governance of Atlantis under Poseidon's commands, and the eventual moral decline of the Atlanteans.
Chapter 64
Introduction and Analysis
This chapter discusses the role of the legislator in determining good and evil, the nature of justice and injustice, the classification of crimes as voluntary or involuntary, the importance of arithmetic in education, the appointment of magistrates, and the unity of the four virtues (courage, temperance, justice, wisdom) as the object of the statesman. It also touches on the founding of a colony, the election of guardians of the law, and the need for philosophical knowledge of virtue and the divine.
Chapter 65
Critias
Critias begins his narrative of ancient Athens and Atlantis, describing the war between the Athenians and the Atlanteans, the divine allotment of lands, the laws and governance of Atlantis under Poseidon's commands, and the eventual moral decline of the Atlanteans.
Chapter 66
Parmenides
Socrates engages with Parmenides and Zeno in a profound philosophical discussion about the theory of Forms, the nature of the One and the Many, and the method of hypothesis. Parmenides critiques Socrates' understanding of ideas and introduces a rigorous dialectical exercise to train the mind in examining consequences of hypotheses and their negations.
Chapter 67
Introduction and Analysis
This chapter discusses the role of the legislator in determining good and evil, the nature of justice and injustice, the classification of crimes as voluntary or involuntary, the importance of arithmetic in education, the appointment of magistrates, and the unity of the four virtues (courage, temperance, justice, wisdom) as the object of the statesman. It also touches on the founding of a colony, the election of guardians of the law, and the need for philosophical knowledge of virtue and the divine.
Chapter 68
Parmenides
Socrates engages with Parmenides and Zeno in a profound philosophical discussion about the theory of Forms, the nature of the One and the Many, and the method of hypothesis. Parmenides critiques Socrates' understanding of ideas and introduces a rigorous dialectical exercise to train the mind in examining consequences of hypotheses and their negations.
Chapter 69
Theaetetus
Socrates and Theaetetus continue their inquiry into the nature of knowledge, examining and rejecting the definition of knowledge as true opinion, and then considering the proposal that knowledge is true opinion combined with reason (logos). They explore the paradox of false opinion, the distinction between perception and thought, and the role of the mind in unifying sensory experiences. The discussion touches on the theory of elements and compounds as a model for knowledge, and Socrates expresses reverence for Parmenides while steering the dialogue back to the main question.
Chapter 70
Introduction and Analysis
This chapter discusses the role of the legislator in determining good and evil, the nature of justice and injustice, the classification of crimes as voluntary or involuntary, the importance of arithmetic in education, the appointment of magistrates, and the unity of the four virtues (courage, temperance, justice, wisdom) as the object of the statesman. It also touches on the founding of a colony, the election of guardians of the law, and the need for philosophical knowledge of virtue and the divine.
Chapter 71
On the Nature and Limits of Psychology
This chapter examines the foundations and boundaries of psychology, arguing that it is not a true science like chemistry or mathematics but a collection of scattered observations. It emphasizes the importance of studying mental phenomena through self-reflection and ordinary experience, warns against sham sciences, and highlights the unity of the human faculties and the need to distinguish higher and lower elements of human nature. The chapter also touches on the role of language, habit, association, and the possibility of another life, while cautioning against overreliance on physiology or technical jargon.
Chapter 72
Theaetetus
Socrates and Theaetetus continue their inquiry into the nature of knowledge, examining and rejecting the definition of knowledge as true opinion, and then considering the proposal that knowledge is true opinion combined with reason (logos). They explore the paradox of false opinion, the distinction between perception and thought, and the role of the mind in unifying sensory experiences. The discussion touches on the theory of elements and compounds as a model for knowledge, and Socrates expresses reverence for Parmenides while steering the dialogue back to the main question.
Chapter 73
Sophist
Socrates, Theodorus, and Theaetetus welcome an Eleatic Stranger, a disciple of Parmenides and Zeno. Socrates playfully suggests the Stranger might be a god in disguise, but Theodorus insists he is a true philosopher. The dialogue turns to defining the sophist, statesman, and philosopher, with the Stranger agreeing to discuss them. The Stranger prefers dialectical questioning and chooses Theaetetus as his interlocutor. They begin by using the example of an angler to practice the method of division, classifying arts into productive and acquisitive, and further subdividing to eventually define the sophist as a kind of imitator or deceiver. The discussion explores the nature of falsehood, imitation, and the distinction between divine and human creation.
Chapter 74
Introduction and Analysis
This chapter discusses the role of the legislator in determining good and evil, the nature of justice and injustice, the classification of crimes as voluntary or involuntary, the importance of arithmetic in education, the appointment of magistrates, and the unity of the four virtues (courage, temperance, justice, wisdom) as the object of the statesman. It also touches on the founding of a colony, the election of guardians of the law, and the need for philosophical knowledge of virtue and the divine.
Chapter 75
Sophist
Socrates, Theodorus, and Theaetetus welcome an Eleatic Stranger, a disciple of Parmenides and Zeno. Socrates playfully suggests the Stranger might be a god in disguise, but Theodorus insists he is a true philosopher. The dialogue turns to defining the sophist, statesman, and philosopher, with the Stranger agreeing to discuss them. The Stranger prefers dialectical questioning and chooses Theaetetus as his interlocutor. They begin by using the example of an angler to practice the method of division, classifying arts into productive and acquisitive, and further subdividing to eventually define the sophist as a kind of imitator or deceiver. The discussion explores the nature of falsehood, imitation, and the distinction between divine and human creation.
Chapter 76
Statesman
The Eleatic Stranger and Young Socrates discuss the art of the statesman as a royal weaving that blends courageous and gentle natures, binds them with divine and human cords, and examines the forms of government—monarchy, aristocracy, oligarchy, democracy, and tyranny—in relation to law and knowledge, ultimately distinguishing the true statesman from mere imitators and sophists.
Chapter 77
Introduction and Analysis
This chapter discusses the role of the legislator in determining good and evil, the nature of justice and injustice, the classification of crimes as voluntary or involuntary, the importance of arithmetic in education, the appointment of magistrates, and the unity of the four virtues (courage, temperance, justice, wisdom) as the object of the statesman. It also touches on the founding of a colony, the election of guardians of the law, and the need for philosophical knowledge of virtue and the divine.
Chapter 78
Statesman
The Eleatic Stranger and Young Socrates discuss the art of the statesman as a royal weaving that blends courageous and gentle natures, binds them with divine and human cords, and examines the forms of government—monarchy, aristocracy, oligarchy, democracy, and tyranny—in relation to law and knowledge, ultimately distinguishing the true statesman from mere imitators and sophists.
Chapter 79
Philebus
Socrates discusses the nature of the good, arguing that neither pleasure nor wisdom alone is the chief good, but a third, mixed life. He introduces a method of dialectic involving the finite and infinite, and argues that mind and intelligence order the universe, not chance.
Chapter 80
Introduction and Analysis
This chapter discusses the role of the legislator in determining good and evil, the nature of justice and injustice, the classification of crimes as voluntary or involuntary, the importance of arithmetic in education, the appointment of magistrates, and the unity of the four virtues (courage, temperance, justice, wisdom) as the object of the statesman. It also touches on the founding of a colony, the election of guardians of the law, and the need for philosophical knowledge of virtue and the divine.
Chapter 81
Philebus
Socrates discusses the nature of the good, arguing that neither pleasure nor wisdom alone is the chief good, but a third, mixed life. He introduces a method of dialectic involving the finite and infinite, and argues that mind and intelligence order the universe, not chance.
Chapter 82
Laws
The Athenian Stranger discusses the role of the legislator in shaping virtuous citizens through laws, emphasizing the importance of prefaces to laws, the persuasion of citizens toward virtue, and the alignment of pleasure with justice. He outlines procedures for judges, funerary practices, and the use of choruses to instill noble beliefs in the young.
Chapter 83
Introduction and Analysis
This chapter discusses the role of the legislator in determining good and evil, the nature of justice and injustice, the classification of crimes as voluntary or involuntary, the importance of arithmetic in education, the appointment of magistrates, and the unity of the four virtues (courage, temperance, justice, wisdom) as the object of the statesman. It also touches on the founding of a colony, the election of guardians of the law, and the need for philosophical knowledge of virtue and the divine.
Chapter 84
The Preamble
This chapter discusses the nature of justice and injustice, the motivations behind crimes (anger, pleasure, ignorance), and the role of law in remedying or punishing them. It covers laws on homicide, the care of orphans, disinheritance, and the selection of citizens, emphasizing the importance of virtue, purification, and the foundation of a well-ordered state with 5,040 citizens.
Chapter 85
Excursus on the Relation of the Laws of Plato to the Institutions of Crete and Lacedaemon and to the Laws and Constitution of Athens
This chapter examines the similarities and differences between Plato's Laws and the legal and political institutions of Athens, Crete, and Sparta. It discusses Plato's moderate constitution, the use of the lot in elections, the Nocturnal Council, and various legal principles such as the treatment of slaves, the distinction between voluntary and involuntary crimes, and the purpose of punishment as reform. The chapter also reflects on Plato's attempt to blend Athenian and Spartan ideals into a balanced state.
Chapter 86
Laws
The Athenian Stranger discusses the role of the legislator in shaping virtuous citizens through laws, emphasizing the importance of prefaces to laws, the persuasion of citizens toward virtue, and the alignment of pleasure with justice. He outlines procedures for judges, funerary practices, and the use of choruses to instill noble beliefs in the young.
Chapter 87
Book I
The Athenian Stranger, Cleinias, and Megillus discuss the purpose of legislation, arguing that laws should aim at virtue as a whole, not just military courage. They explore the nature of education, the role of law in guiding human passions, and the superiority of peace over war, criticizing the Spartan and Cretan focus on warfare.
Chapter 88
Book II
The Athenian Stranger discusses the nature of education, pleasure, and pain, arguing that the just life is also the most pleasant. He emphasizes the role of the legislator in shaping citizens' beliefs through songs, tales, and festivals, and proposes a system of three choruses to instill virtue in the young. The dialogue explores the harmony of pleasure and justice, and the necessity of persuading citizens that the just life is the happiest.
Chapter 89
Book III
The Athenian Stranger discusses the decline of states due to immoderate power and the importance of distributing honor based on virtue, particularly temperance. He examines the failures of Persian and Spartan governments, emphasizing the need for balanced power and the rule of law to prevent tyranny and preserve the state.
Chapter 90
Book IV
The Athenian Stranger discusses the role of the legislator in persuading citizens to virtue, using prefaces to laws to gently guide them. He compares the legislator to a physician who treats freemen with discourse and persuasion rather than mere commands. He argues that the quickest way to establish a good state is through a virtuous tyrant who cooperates with a wise legislator, and he outlines the order of ease for political change: tyranny, monarchy, democracy, and oligarchy. The chapter also touches on the need for precise definitions in laws, using funerals as an example, and begins with marriage laws as the foundation of the state.
Chapter 91
Book V
The Athenian Stranger discusses the importance of the soul, the proper distribution of wealth, and the role of the legislator in creating a harmonious state. He emphasizes reverence, obedience to laws, and the need to avoid extremes of poverty and wealth. The chapter outlines a detailed plan for dividing the city and land into twelve portions, with 5,040 lots, each composed of two sections, and the establishment of four property classes to ensure stability and prevent faction.
Chapter 92
Book VI
The Athenian Stranger continues the foundation of the ideal city, focusing on the number 5,040 and its divisions for tribes, religious festivals, and marriage laws. He emphasizes the importance of justice, natural equality, and the mingling of different natures in marriages for the benefit of the state. The chapter details the roles of various officers, including wardens of the city, agora, and temples, and outlines the process for legislative adjustments over time.
Chapter 93
Book VII
The Athenian Stranger discusses the nurture and education of children, emphasizing the importance of physical exercise even before birth, the role of movement in health, and the regulation of hunting. He argues that the best education improves mind and body, and that the state should oversee the upbringing of children, including compulsory education for both sexes. He also reflects on the proper attitude towards seriousness and play, suggesting that humans are playthings of God and should live in peace, engaging in sacrifices, singing, and dancing.
Chapter 94
Book VIII
The Athenian Stranger discusses the causes that prevent states from effectively pursuing martial arts and noble aims, focusing on the love of wealth and flawed forms of government. He proposes laws for military training and contests, and examines the nature of love and friendship, distinguishing between virtuous and base forms, and advocating for laws that promote the former.
Chapter 95
Book IX
The Athenian Stranger discusses the necessity of legislating for crimes in a well-regulated state, acknowledging the disgrace in anticipating such offenses. He outlines laws for temple robbing, distinguishes between hurt and injustice, and categorizes the sources of crime as passion, pleasure, and ignorance. The dialogue emphasizes that punishment should aim to improve the offender or remove incurable criminals, and that laws should be written with the wisdom of loving parents rather than tyrants.
Chapter 96
Book X
The Athenian Stranger elaborates on divine justice, the indestructibility of the soul, and the moral order of the universe. He argues that the Gods are not to be propitiated by gifts or sacrifices from the wicked, and that justice and virtue are the true means of salvation. He proposes laws against private religious rites and impiety, emphasizing that the state must regulate worship to prevent corruption.
Chapter 97
Book XI
This book discusses laws concerning orphans, marriage, inheritance, slander, comic poetry, beggars, and property disputes. It emphasizes the role of guardians of the law, the importance of respecting the dead, and the need for temperance in speech and action. The Athenian Stranger outlines specific penalties for various offenses, including treasure-trove, and stresses the value of justice and virtue over material wealth.
Chapter 98
Book XII
The Athenian Stranger continues the detailed legislation of Magnesia, covering military service, desertion, false witness, the throwing away of arms, funeral expenses, and the treatment of strangers. He emphasizes the need for laws to have an irreversible, preserving quality, and establishes a nocturnal council to oversee education and the stability of the state.
Chapter 99
Appendix
The appendix of the book, likely containing supplementary material, references, or additional notes related to the dialogues.
Chapter 100
Appendix I
Socrates engages Alcibiades in a dialogue about self-knowledge, virtue, and the true nature of political leadership. He urges Alcibiades to look beyond Athenian statesmen and consider the Spartan and Persian kings as his true rivals, emphasizing the need for education and divine guidance. The chapter also includes a brief introduction to the Menexenus, a rhetorical exercise attributed to Plato, which parodies Athenian funeral orations.
Chapter 101
Lesser Hippias
Socrates engages Hippias in a dialectical examination of whether voluntary or involuntary wrongdoing is worse, using analogies from athletics and bodily skills to challenge Hippias' earlier claims about the characters of Achilles and Odysseus.
Chapter 102
Lesser Hippias
Socrates engages Hippias in a dialectical examination of whether voluntary or involuntary wrongdoing is worse, using analogies from athletics and bodily skills to challenge Hippias' earlier claims about the characters of Achilles and Odysseus.
Chapter 103
First Alcibiades
Socrates engages Alcibiades in a dialogue about self-knowledge, wisdom, and the proper preparation for a political career. He argues that true self-knowledge comes from understanding the soul, which is divine and akin to wisdom, and that without it one cannot know what is truly good or just. Socrates warns Alcibiades that his ignorance of the greatest matters—justice, honor, the good—is disgraceful and that he, like most statesmen, rushes into politics uneducated. He urges Alcibiades to take pains to improve himself, with Socrates as his divinely appointed guide.
Chapter 104
First Alcibiades
Socrates engages Alcibiades in a dialogue about self-knowledge, wisdom, and the proper preparation for a political career. He argues that true self-knowledge comes from understanding the soul, which is divine and akin to wisdom, and that without it one cannot know what is truly good or just. Socrates warns Alcibiades that his ignorance of the greatest matters—justice, honor, the good—is disgraceful and that he, like most statesmen, rushes into politics uneducated. He urges Alcibiades to take pains to improve himself, with Socrates as his divinely appointed guide.
Chapter 105
Menexenus
Socrates meets Menexenus coming from the Council chamber and learns that the Athenians are about to choose a speaker for the public funeral of the war dead. Socrates playfully criticizes the rhetorical excesses of such orations, then recounts a funeral speech he claims to have heard from Aspasia, which praises the dead, their ancestors, and Athens itself as the mother of her people.
Chapter 106
Menexenus
Socrates meets Menexenus coming from the Council chamber and learns that the Athenians are about to choose a speaker for the public funeral of the war dead. Socrates playfully criticizes the rhetorical excesses of such orations, then recounts a funeral speech he claims to have heard from Aspasia, which praises the dead, their ancestors, and Athens itself as the mother of her people.
Chapter 107
Appendix II
In this appendix, Socrates engages in dialogues with Alcibiades, Prodicus, Critias, and others, exploring the nature of knowledge, virtue, and the good. He argues that without knowledge of the best, other arts and skills can be harmful, and that true wisdom is essential for the soul's safe voyage through life. The discussion also touches on the utility of wealth, the role of prayer, and the distinction between opinion and true knowledge.
Chapter 108
Second Alcibiades
Socrates engages Alcibiades in a dialectical examination of the nature of knowledge, ignorance, and the good. He argues that possessing any art or science without knowledge of the best (the good) is more harmful than beneficial, using examples from poetry, prayer, and hypothetical actions. Socrates concludes that the soul must hold firmly to the knowledge of the best to navigate life safely, and that the many fail because they trust in opinion devoid of intelligence.
Chapter 109
Eryxias
Socrates engages Critias and Eryxias in a dialectical examination of wealth, wisdom, and happiness. He argues that the richest are often in the worst condition because they have the greatest needs, and that wisdom is the most valuable possession, making the wise man truly rich. Eryxias resists this conclusion, insisting on the practical necessity of material wealth. The discussion includes a recollection of Prodicus of Ceos being challenged by a young man on the nature of good and the efficacy of prayer.
Chapter 110
Eryxias
Socrates engages Critias and Eryxias in a dialectical examination of wealth, wisdom, and happiness. He argues that the richest are often in the worst condition because they have the greatest needs, and that wisdom is the most valuable possession, making the wise man truly rich. Eryxias resists this conclusion, insisting on the practical necessity of material wealth. The discussion includes a recollection of Prodicus of Ceos being challenged by a young man on the nature of good and the efficacy of prayer.
Chapter 111
Endnotes
This chapter consists of endnotes referencing various Platonic dialogues, Aristotle's works, and other classical sources, providing citations, cross-references, and textual clarifications for the preceding text.
