Deputies or Representatives explained

What happens

Themes in this chapter

• Sovereignty and Government

  Rousseau asserts that sovereignty cannot be represented; it lies in the general will and must be exercised directly by the people.

• The General Will

  The general will is the foundation of law and cannot be delegated; representation undermines its authenticity.

• Decline and Corruption of the State

  The use of deputies and money payments for public service signals the corruption and impending fall of the state.

• Liberty and Equality

  Rousseau argues that representation leads to slavery and the loss of liberty, contrasting ancient freedom with modern servitude.

Characters to notice

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau

  Author and narrator; presents the argument against representation and for direct democracy.

• The Gracchi

  Mentioned in the context of Roman assemblies where citizens had to vote from rooftops due to the large crowd.

• Romulus

  Implied in the discussion of ancient Rome and its institutions, though not directly named.

• Servius Tullius

  Implied in the discussion of Roman political structures and the role of tribunes.

• Tacitus

  Implied in the discussion of ancient peoples and their lack of representatives.

• Aristotle

  Implied in the discussion of the nature of civil society and the disadvantages of representation.

• Plato

  Implied in the discussion of the ideal state and the role of citizens.

• Niccolò Machiavelli

  Implied in the discussion of the decline of states and the use of force versus representation.

Key passages

• “As soon as public service ceases to be the chief business of the citizens, and they would rather serve with their money than with their persons, the State is not far from its fall.”

  When citizens prefer to pay others to fulfill their civic duties rather than doing them themselves, the state is close to collapse.

  Rousseau criticizes the substitution of personal service with monetary payments as a sign of political decay.

• “Sovereignty, for the same reason as makes it inalienable, cannot be represented; it lies essentially in the general will, and will does not admit of representation: it is either the same, or other; there is no intermediate possibility.”

  Sovereignty cannot be represented because it is the general will, which cannot be delegated; it is either the people's will or it is not.

  This is a core argument against representative democracy, asserting that the general will is indivisible and cannot be transferred.

• “The people of England regards itself as free; but it is grossly mistaken; it is free only during the election of members of parliament. As soon as they are elected, slavery overtakes it, and it is nothing.”

  The English think they are free, but they are only free when voting; once representatives are chosen, the people become slaves.

  Rousseau dismisses the English system as a sham, where liberty is momentary and quickly lost to representation.

• “The idea of representation is modern; it comes to us from feudal government, from that iniquitous and absurd system which degrades humanity and dishonours the name of man.”

  Representation is a modern concept originating from feudalism, a corrupt and degrading system.

  Rousseau traces the origin of representation to feudalism, which he condemns as unjust and dehumanizing.

• “In any case, the moment a people allows itself to be represented, it is no longer free: it no longer exists.”

  Once a people accepts representation, it ceases to be free and effectively ceases to exist as a sovereign entity.

  This is a stark conclusion: representation is incompatible with freedom and the existence of a sovereign people.