The Rights of Man · Chapters
Chapters explained
Chapter companions for The Rights of Man by Thomas Paine.
Chapter 1
Editor's Introduction
Moncure Daniel Conway's introduction provides biographical context for Thomas Paine's 'Rights of Man,' detailing Paine's journey from America to France and England, his friendship with Jefferson and Lafayette, his invention of an iron bridge, and the political and literary duel with Edmund Burke. Conway contrasts Paine's republican principles, rooted in Quakerism and belief in universal brotherhood, with Burke's conservative defense of hereditary privilege and monarchy. The introduction covers the publication history of both parts of 'Rights of Man,' Burke's response, and the subsequent prosecution of Paine, highlighting their opposing roles in the French Revolution and the broader war between Royalism and Republicanism in Europe.
Chapter 2
The Rights of Man
Thomas Paine defends the French Revolution against Edmund Burke's attack, arguing for natural rights, popular sovereignty, and the right of the people to reform their government. He critiques hereditary succession and monarchy, contrasts the American and French revolutions with the British system, and calls for a new era of reason and peace.
Chapter 3
Part First: Being an Answer to Mr. Burke’s Attack on the French Revolution
Thomas Paine responds to Edmund Burke's critique of the French Revolution, defending the principles of popular sovereignty and natural rights, and arguing against hereditary government and Burke's defense of tradition.
Chapter 4
Dedication
Thomas Paine dedicates his work 'The Rights of Man' to George Washington, praising his virtue in establishing principles of freedom and expressing hope that the New World will regenerate the Old.
Chapter 5
Paine's Preface to the English Edition
In this preface, Thomas Paine explains his disappointment with Edmund Burke, whom he once considered a friend to mankind due to Burke's support for the American Revolution. Paine recounts his time in Paris, his promise to answer Burke's forthcoming pamphlet attacking the French Revolution, and his efforts to promote peace between England and France. He also mentions a letter from a French minister advocating for better relations, which he had shared with Burke, and criticizes Burke for sowing discord between nations.
Chapter 6
Paine's Preface to the French Edition
Paine distinguishes between the French Revolution's effect on foreign peoples versus their governments, arguing that the English government is hostile to the revolution while the English people are sympathetic. He criticizes the English government's warmongering and taxation, and calls for the peoples of France, England, and America to unite in promoting good government.
Chapter 7
Rights of Man
Paine launches a vigorous defense of the French Revolution against Edmund Burke's attack, arguing that natural rights reside in the whole nation and cannot be bound by past generations. He contrasts the French Constitution's rational principles—universal suffrage, proportional representation, and economic freedom—with the corrupt, hereditary system in England, and defends the National Assembly against Burke's theatrical exaggerations.
Chapter 8
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of Citizens by the National Assembly of France
The National Assembly of France issues a solemn declaration of natural, imprescriptible, and inalienable rights, asserting that men are born free and equal, that sovereignty resides in the nation, and that law is an expression of the general will. It enumerates rights including liberty, property, security, resistance to oppression, freedom of opinion and speech, and the right to participate in government, while establishing principles of legal equality, due process, and the separation of powers.
Chapter 9
Observations on the Declaration of Rights
Paine analyzes the French Declaration of the Rights of Man, arguing that the first three articles form the foundation of liberty and that a declaration of rights inherently implies a declaration of duties. He defends the French Revolution against critics like Burke, asserting that it represents a regeneration of mankind rather than mere political change.
Chapter 10
Miscellaneous Chapter
Paine gathers scattered observations to critique Burke's disorganized attack on the French Revolution. He argues that hereditary succession is a form of despotism that precludes the consent of future generations, and that government must be based on reason and the will of the nation, not on hereditary wisdom or arbitrary power.
Chapter 11
Conclusion
Paine concludes by contrasting the old systems of hereditary government, which rely on ignorance and war, with the new republican systems based on reason, natural rights, and popular sovereignty. He argues that revolutions in America and France have restored the natural order, and he advocates for a European Congress to abolish war. He critiques mixed governments as corrupt and irresponsible, and he calls for reform through reason rather than convulsion.
Chapter 12
Part Second: Combining Principle and Practice
Paine transitions from theoretical arguments to practical application, emphasizing the necessity of combining principle with practice in governance. He critiques hereditary succession and monarchy, advocates for representative government, and discusses the French Revolution's Declaration of Rights as a model for reform.
Chapter 13
French Translator’s Preface (1792)
The French translator introduces Thomas Paine's 'Rights of Man' to the French public, praising Paine as a champion of freedom who preached 'Common Sense' successfully in America. The preface explains that Paine was forced to engage with Edmund Burke's criticisms due to English prejudices, but the translator chose to omit Paine's lengthy rebuttal preface and dedicatory epistle to Lafayette, as such formalities were deemed unsuitable for the free French people. The translator also expresses skepticism about Lafayette's sincerity, contrasting Paine's uncorrupted American integrity with the artful ways of courtiers.
Chapter 14
To M. de la Fayette
Thomas Paine dedicates his treatise to the Marquis de La Fayette, reflecting on their long acquaintance and shared principles of government, though differing on the pace of reform. Paine expresses his renewed commitment to public action and hopes for the spread of revolutions to ensure peace and reduce taxes.
Chapter 15
Of Society and Civilisation
Paine argues that society is naturally self-regulating through mutual dependence and common interest, and that government is only necessary for the few cases where society cannot manage itself. He contrasts the natural order of society with the artificial impositions of government, using the American Revolution as evidence that people can govern themselves without formal structures.
Chapter 16
Of the Origin of the Present Old Governments
Paine argues that all old governments originated through violence and usurpation, contrasting them with the legitimate foundations of American and French governments. He traces monarchy back to banditti and robbers, and contends that such governments perpetuate war and extortion, offering no possibility of reform except starting anew on the ground of the nation.
Chapter 17
Of the Old and New Systems of Government
Paine contrasts the old hereditary system of government, based on war and power, with the new representative system, based on peace and the common benefit of society. He argues that hereditary government is tyrannical and inadequate, while representative government is rational, mature, and suited to large territories. He criticizes Burke's defense of monarchy and praises the American model of representation ingrafted upon democracy.
Chapter 18
Of Constitutions
Paine argues that constitutions are not compacts between people and government, but compacts among the people themselves to create a government. He contrasts the American and French constitutional processes with the British system, emphasizing that constitutions must be revisable by each generation and that the rights of man belong to all generations equally. He criticizes Burke's notion of binding posterity and advocates for periodic constitutional revision, the abolition of personal oaths, and the idea that government is a trust, not a trade.
Chapter 19
Ways and Means of Improving the Condition of Europe: Interspersed with Miscellaneous Observations
Paine outlines practical reforms to improve the condition of Europe, advocating for peaceful revolution through reason and public opinion rather than violence. He proposes an alliance between England, France, and America to limit navies and reduce military spending, and argues that governments should serve the general happiness. He contrasts active (violent) and passive (rational) revolutions, and calls for the abolition of corruption and excessive taxation, ending with a reflection on religion as a personal matter.
Chapter 20
Appendix
Paine explains the delay in publishing his work, detailing how his printer abruptly returned the manuscript after initially offering a thousand pounds for the copyright. He notes striking similarities between his proposed tax reductions and those in Pitt's speech, suggesting possible government interference. Paine recounts suspicious circumstances involving a ministerial bookseller and the printer's change of heart, but refrains from making direct accusations.
Chapter 21
Endnotes
The endnotes provide additional commentary and citations for the main text, including Paine's reflections on his own career, his defense of Wat Tyler, and his correspondence with George Washington, as well as editorial notes on Burke's pamphlet and the French Revolution.
