The National Being · Chapters
Chapters explained
Chapter companions for The National Being by George William Russell.
Chapter 1
Dedication
The author dedicates the book to Sir Horace Plunkett, reflecting on how Plunkett grafted poetry onto economics and inspired the author to explore the union of spiritual and material forces.
Chapter 2
The National Being
This chapter introduces the concept of the 'National Being' as a foundational principle for Irish polity, arguing that a nation's true identity and strength derive from its collective spiritual and intellectual character rather than material or political structures alone.
Chapter 3
I
The chapter introduces the birth of the Irish state in 1914 amid world conflict and reflects on the need to build a national civilization based on intellectual and spiritual foundations rather than mere political passion. It argues for the development of national ideals through scholars, thinkers, and artists, and emphasizes the importance of discovering the fundamental character of Ireland to guide its future.
Chapter 4
II
The chapter explores the concept of the National Being as an oversoul that elevates individuals in a civilization, contrasting the unified ideals of ancient societies like Egypt, Greece, and Ireland with the lack of heroic figures in modern literature and democracy. It argues that poets and artists once created ideals that shaped national character, but modern literature fails to inspire greatness, leading to a decline in spiritual dignity and a loss of direction in Ireland.
Chapter 5
III
The chapter argues that Ireland's new polity must reject theocratic and aristocratic rule, and instead address the economic disenfranchisement of the working class. It critiques industrial autocracy and calls for integrating labor into the economic structure to prevent social upheaval.
Chapter 6
The Transformation of Patrick Maloney
This chapter explores the potential transformation of the typical Irish farmer, Patrick Maloney, through the cooperative movement. It contrasts his current state of economic isolation, individualism, and limited vision with the possibility of becoming a knowledgeable, nationally-conscious citizen. The cooperative system is presented as a means to connect the home to the nation, fostering practical cooperation, breaking down sectarian divides, and ultimately cultivating a higher national character capable of producing a new civilization.
Chapter 7
Chapter V: The Rural Community and the Cooperative Ideal
This chapter contrasts the ancient Irish rural community, bound by common interests and land ownership, with the modern unorganized rural population that has decayed due to the rise of centralized states and emigration. It argues that without cooperative organization, rural areas stagnate, while cooperative societies can revitalize them by enabling economic, social, and intellectual life. The author illustrates this with a successful cooperative in northwest Ireland and warns that the exodus to cities threatens national health, calling for rural organization to make the countryside a place no one would willingly leave.
Chapter 8
VI
The chapter outlines a vision for creating a cooperative rural community in Ireland, arguing that such an organization is essential for a true rural civilization. It describes how farmers can become masters of their own destinies through cooperative societies that integrate all aspects of rural life, from farming to social activities, and emphasizes the moral and spiritual transformation that such unity can bring. The author draws parallels between biological organisms and social organisms, advocating for a community where individual and collective interests are aligned, ultimately linking this economic reorganization to national idealism and the quest for a higher civilization.
Chapter 9
VII
This chapter addresses the plight of the agricultural laborer in Ireland, proposing cooperative organization and collective farming as solutions to poverty, emigration, and rural decay. It argues for integrating laborers into cooperative communities to achieve economic independence and a true rural civilization.
Chapter 10
VIII
This chapter examines the plight of urban proletarians, contrasting the lofty spiritual doctrines proclaimed about workers with their degrading material conditions. It critiques the disparity between religious ideals and social realities, highlighting the insecurity, poverty, and spiritual servitude imposed by industrial capitalism. The author celebrates the hidden nobility and principled sacrifice of ordinary workers, who resist oppression despite lacking resources, and argues that these workers must be educated and integrated into a truly Christian social order based on brotherhood.
Chapter 11
Chapter IX
The chapter critiques industrial development in Ireland, arguing that it replicates exploitative labor systems of the past and denies essential freedom to workers. It calls for a new civilization that balances individual freedom with national solidarity, and passionately defends freedom of thought and expression as foundational to an Irish polity.
Chapter 12
The Emancipation of Labor
This chapter examines the struggle for labor emancipation in Ireland, arguing that revolution is less effective than a gradual, evolutionary approach that builds intellectual and moral capacities. It critiques the alliance of press, law, and church against labor, and warns that wage-focused battles are ultimately futile because capital can shift burdens. The narrator advocates for a spiritual or economic revolution that attracts knowledge and experience to the workers' cause.
Chapter 13
XI
The chapter argues for cooperative economics as the path to economic and spiritual freedom for Irish workers and farmers, critiquing strikes and political action as ineffective frontal assaults. It advocates for democratizing distribution through cooperative stores, which can fund production and unite urban and rural workers, ultimately leading to a psychological shift toward common action and a cooperative democracy.
Chapter 14
XII
This chapter argues for a cooperative commonwealth that unites rural and urban workers through federations, making identity of interest visible in daily economic life. It critiques individualism and competition, advocates for cooperative production and distribution, and emphasizes that national solidarity requires real, tangible cooperation between farmers and townspeople.
Chapter 15
Chapter XIII
The author argues against relying on the State and representative government for economic reform, asserting that such institutions are dominated by economic power holders and are not malleable to the general will. He advocates for voluntary cooperative action as a means to achieve democratic control and economic freedom, allowing the general will to manifest freely and transform society from a static to a dynamic condition.
Chapter 16
XIV
The author critiques the new Irish self-government machinery for lacking the signature of the Irish mind, arguing that no thought was given to a form of government befitting Irish character. He proposes a system of representative government where particular interests are controlled by boards elected from the relevant class or industry, rather than by a general assembly, to ensure efficiency and preserve national character. He also calls for state-organized labor unions and a ministry of labor to protect workers, and outlines a detailed electoral system based on specialized committees.
Chapter 17
XV
The chapter argues that national policy must align with national character, and that to understand Irish character one must look past centuries of struggle to ancient origins. It posits that the Irish character is fundamentally aristocratic in leadership and democratic in economics, as seen in the ancient clan system. The author criticizes the adoption of English individualism and calls for a return to cooperative economics led by an aristocracy of character and intellect, warning that suppression of independent thought is inimical to the national being.
Chapter 18
Chapter XVI: Military Spirit and the National Being
This chapter examines the role of military organization in fostering national consciousness, arguing that while war can temporarily unite a nation, it creates an unstable and superficial unity. The author advocates for a civil, cooperative social order as a more enduring foundation for Irish national identity, warning against the dominance of militarism which can impoverish the soul. He draws lessons from military discipline on self-sacrifice for the common good, proposing that similar devotion can be cultivated in civic life through economic and spiritual means.
Chapter 19
Chapter XVII
The author proposes a radical vision for Ireland: civil conscription, where every young man would serve two years in a national labor army for public works, training, and beautification, arguing it would foster national pride, discipline, and brotherhood, and transform Ireland's mean cities and countryside into a beautiful civilization, contrasting this with the expense and spiritlessness of current state projects and the alternative of military conscription.
Chapter 20
XVIII
The narrator argues against race hatred and national antagonisms, asserting that hatred transforms a people into the likeness of what they hate. He contends that Ireland must maintain its identity through moral and economic forces rather than physical power, and that true peace comes from individual cultivation of higher qualities. The chapter concludes with a call for Irish idealists to work for a cooperative, peaceful future.
Chapter 21
XIX
The chapter explores the evolving relationship between the individual and the State, arguing that the State's growing authority is part of a cosmic evolutionary process toward a unified humanity. It examines how the State commands sacrifice and loyalty, even when imperfect, as a simulacrum of an ideal unity. The author connects this to the national being of Ireland, tracing its origins to ancient heroic ideals and spiritual forces that reincarnate in modern movements for cooperative economics and aristocratic leadership. The chapter emphasizes that true national being arises from psychic unity and the manifestation of divine ideals through multitudes.
Chapter 22
Chapter XX
The chapter argues that Ireland's lack of organic unity stems from economic individualism, and proposes the cooperative movement as the only means to achieve economic solidarity and national harmony. It calls on churches, poets, artists, and thinkers to help create a spiritual and economic basis for a unified national being, warning against indifference and sectarianism.
Chapter 23
Endnotes
A brief note acknowledging that events in Ireland since the book's writing have tragically illustrated the truths argued in the preceding pages.
