The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire · Chapters
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Chapter companions for The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon.
Chapter 1
Preface by the Editor
The editor's preface defends Gibbon's work as indispensable while critiquing his biased treatment of Christianity, arguing that Gibbon's style and tone unfairly diminish Christian history compared to pagan and Muslim narratives. The editor outlines the corrective and supplementary aims of the new edition, emphasizing the need to separate apostolic Christianity from later corruptions.
Chapter 2
Preface of the Author
Gibbon outlines his grand plan for the History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, dividing the narrative into three periods: from the Antonines to the fall of the Western Empire, from Justinian to Charlemagne, and from Charlemagne to the fall of Constantinople in 1453. He reflects on the scope of his work, his commitment to completing the first period, and his hopes to continue through the Byzantine centuries and the Crusades.
Chapter 3
Preface to the First Volume
Gibbon introduces his historical work, emphasizing diligence and accuracy as his primary merits. He notes his careful examination of original materials and outlines a future plan for a critical account of authors consulted. He discusses the Augustan History, a collection of biographies of Roman emperors from Hadrian to the sons of Carus, compiled under Diocletian and Constantine, and notes the scholarly disputes over the authorship and titles of its manuscripts.
Chapter 4
Preface to the Fourth Volume of the Original Quarto Edition
Gibbon reflects on the completion of his history of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, covering from Trajan and the Antonines to the fall of Constantinople under Muhammad II, including the Crusades and medieval Rome. He discusses his methodology, reliance on original sources, and his personal circumstances, including his health, leisure, and plans for future work. He also addresses stylistic choices regarding geographical and proper name conventions.
Chapter 5
The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
The chapter introduces the grand narrative of the Roman Empire's decline and fall, setting the stage for the analysis of its causes and consequences.
Chapter 6
The Extent and Military Force of the Empire in the Age of the Antonines
Gibbon introduces the Roman Empire at its zenith under the Antonines, describing its vast territories, disciplined military, and the moderate policies of Augustus that set boundaries for expansion. He details the conquest of Britain, the military discipline and training of the legions, and the transition from republican conquest to imperial preservation, setting the stage for the empire's eventual decline after the death of Marcus Aurelius.
Chapter 7
Chapter II: The Union and Prosperity of the Roman Empire
This chapter describes the internal unity and prosperity of the Roman Empire under the Antonines, highlighting the blending of conquered peoples into a single Roman identity, the widespread construction of public works, the flourishing of agriculture and trade, and the diffusion of luxury and refinement across the provinces. It also examines the economic interdependence of the empire and the beginnings of foreign commerce with the East.
Chapter 8
Of the Constitution of the Roman Empire, in the Age of the Antonines
This chapter examines the transformation of the Roman Republic into a monarchy under Augustus and his successors, focusing on the loss of constitutional liberties, the role of the military, and the establishment of imperial despotism. It discusses the decline of the Senate, the adoption system used to secure succession, and the character of early emperors such as Trajan and Hadrian.
Chapter 9
Chapter IV: The Cruelty, Follies, and Murder of Commodus
This chapter details the reign of Commodus, son of Marcus Aurelius, focusing on his descent into tyranny, the influence of corrupt favorites, the conspiracy led by his sister Lucilla, and the subsequent terror inflicted upon the Senate. It also covers the rise and fall of the minister Perennis, the revolt of the British legions, and the audacious plot of the bandit Maternus to assassinate the emperor.
Chapter 10
Chapter V
This chapter examines the reign of Septimius Severus, focusing on his military reforms, the corruption of the Praetorian Guard, and the moral decay of the Roman army. It details the infamous auction of the empire by the Praetorians after the murder of Pertinax, the rise of Didius Julianus, and Severus's subsequent civil wars against Niger and Albinus. The narrative highlights the erosion of discipline, the dangerous power of the Praetorian prefect, and the broader decline of the Roman constitution.
Chapter 11
Chapter VI: The Financial and Military Decay of Rome
This chapter examines the internal decay of the Roman Empire following the death of Commodus, focusing on the dangerous power of the army, the financial policies of Caracalla, and the erosion of civil liberties. It details the economic burdens on provinces, the decline of military discipline, and the assassination of Caracalla, leading to the brief reign of Macrinus.
Chapter 12
Chapter VII: The Rise of Maximin and the Tyranny of the Soldier-Emperors
This chapter details the decline of the Roman Empire's internal strength and discipline, focusing on the rise of the barbarian-born soldier Maximin from a Thracian peasant to emperor through military acclamation. It describes his brutal three-year reign of terror, confiscations, and sacrilege, which ultimately provokes a rebellion in Africa led by the proconsul Gordianus, who is reluctantly proclaimed emperor as a refuge against Maximin's tyranny.
Chapter 13
Of the State of Persia after the Restoration of the Monarchy by Artaxerxes
This chapter examines the rise of the Sassanid dynasty under Artaxerxes, who overthrew the Parthian Empire and restored Persian monarchy. It contrasts the disciplined Roman legions with the Persian military, highlighting the latter's reliance on cavalry and individual gallantry but lack of infantry discipline and siegecraft. The narrative sets the stage for the long conflict between Rome and Persia, emphasizing the strategic and cultural differences that shaped their encounters.
Chapter 14
Chapter IX: The State of Germany and the Barbarian Invasions
This chapter examines the state of Germany before the barbarian invasions, focusing on the climate, manners, and institutions of the Germanic tribes. It discusses their lack of iron, military tactics, and internal divisions, which initially prevented them from threatening Rome. The chapter also highlights the Roman policy of dividing the barbarians through diplomacy and the eventual weakening of Roman discipline that allowed the Germans to become formidable enemies.
Chapter 15
The Emperors Decius, Gallus, Aemilianus, Valerian, and Gallienus — The General Irruption of the Barbarians — The Thirty Tyrants
This chapter covers the calamitous period from the secular games of Philip to the death of Gallienus, marked by barbarian invasions and military usurpations. It details the rise and fall of Emperor Decius, the first Gothic invasion, and the reigns of Valerian and Gallienus, during which the Franks, Alemanni, Goths, and Persians attacked the empire. The narrative also explores the origins of the Goths and Franks, and the emergence of numerous usurpers known as the Thirty Tyrants.
Chapter 16
Reign of Claudius—Defeat of the Goths—Victories, triumph and death of Aurelian
The chapter recounts the reigns of Claudius and Aurelian, who, along with other Illyrian emperors, restored the Roman Empire after the disastrous rule of Valerian and Gallienus. It details the defeat of the Goths, the suppression of usurpers, the restoration of military discipline, and Aurelian's campaigns against the Alemanni and his eventual assassination by conspirators.
Chapter 17
XII
After the assassination of Aurelian, the army and senate engage in a remarkable interregnum of eight months, each insisting the other choose the next emperor. Eventually the elderly senator Tacitus is elected, but his reign is brief. Upon his death, his brother Florianus usurps power, only to be defeated by the eastern general Probus, who becomes emperor.
Chapter 18
Chapter XIII: The Reign of Diocletian and His Associates
This chapter details the military and administrative policies of Diocletian, including the fortification of the Roman frontiers, the use of barbarian conflicts to Rome's advantage, and the suppression of internal rebellions such as the Bagaudae in Gaul and the usurpation of Carausius in Britain. It also examines Diocletian's strategic relocation of imperial capitals to Milan and Nicomedia, his systematic reduction of the Senate's power, and the establishment of a new system of imperial governance that foreshadowed the later division of the empire.
Chapter 19
Chapter XIV
This chapter details the political and military maneuvers following the death of Galerius, focusing on the rise of Constantine, the tyranny of Maxentius in Italy, and the eventual conflict between them. It describes the division of the Roman world among six emperors, the oppressive rule of Maxentius, and Constantine's calculated decision to wage war against him, leading to the pivotal battle that would establish Constantine as sole ruler of the West and set the stage for the foundation of Constantinople and the establishment of Christianity.
Chapter 20
Chapter XV: The Progress of the Christian Religion
Gibbon examines the rise of Christianity within the Roman Empire, attributing its success to five secondary causes: intolerant zeal, the doctrine of a future life, miraculous powers, pure morals, and the union and discipline of the church. He traces the evolution of ecclesiastical government from apostolic simplicity to a hierarchical structure, noting how the church's internal politics and ambition mirrored the secular world, and how Christian discipline and organization gave it strength against pagan disunity.
Chapter 21
Chapter XVI: The Conduct of the Roman Government Towards the Christians
This chapter examines the Roman government's treatment of Christians from Nero to Constantine, exploring the paradox of persecuting a peaceful sect within a generally tolerant polytheistic empire. It analyzes the causes, extent, and circumstances of the persecutions, arguing that the emperors acted from political rather than religious motives, and that the Christians' exclusive claims and refusal to participate in civic worship provoked hostility. The chapter also highlights the legal protections, intervals of peace, and the role of popular fury in driving persecution.
Chapter 22
Foundation of Constantinople
Constantine establishes a new capital at Byzantium, renames it Constantinople, and implements sweeping political, military, and administrative reforms that reshape the Roman Empire. The chapter details the creation of the Praetorian prefects as civil magistrates, the division of the empire into four prefectures, the degradation of military discipline through the separation of Palatine and frontier troops, and the reduction of legion sizes. These changes, while strengthening imperial control, sow the seeds of the empire's long-term decline.
Chapter 23
Chapter XVIII: Character of Constantine—Gothic War—Death of Constantine—Division of the Empire
This chapter examines the complex character of Constantine the Great, contrasting his early virtues and military successes with his later decline into cruelty, luxury, and despotism. It details the Gothic War, the emperor's campaigns against the Goths and Sarmatians, and the eventual division of the empire among his three sons after his death. The narrative also covers the tragic deaths of Constantine the Younger and Constans, the usurpation of Magnentius, and the subsequent civil war leading to the victory of Constantius.
Chapter 24
XIX
Constantius becomes sole emperor, leading to the elevation and execution of Gallus, the rise of Julian, and Julian's military victories in Gaul against the Sarmatians, Persians, and Germans, including the decisive Battle of Strasburgh.
Chapter 25
The Conversion of Constantine and the Establishment of the Christian Church
This chapter examines the motives, progress, and effects of Constantine's conversion to Christianity, and the subsequent legal establishment and constitution of the Christian or Catholic Church. It explores the difficulty of dating Constantine's conversion, the slow and cautious manner in which he embraced Christianity, and the political and personal factors that influenced his religious policies. The chapter also details the hierarchical structure of the church, the privileges granted to the clergy, and the consolidation of ecclesiastical power under imperial patronage.
Chapter 26
Chapter XXI
This chapter examines the persistence of paganism and the violent religious conflicts within Christianity during the reigns of Constantine and Constantius. It details the bloody disputes between Catholic and Arian factions in Constantinople, the Donatist schism in Africa, and the slow decline of polytheism despite official Christian favor.
Chapter 27
XXII
Julian is declared emperor by the legions of Gaul, marches against Constantius, and after Constantius's death assumes sole rule, implementing civil reforms.
Chapter 28
Chapter XXIII: The Reign of Julian the Apostate
Julian's reign is marked by his attempt to restore paganism and curb the rising influence of Christianity. He issues an edict of religious toleration that strips Christians of their power to persecute others, while simultaneously favoring pagans in state and military appointments. The chapter details the persecution of Christians through legal and economic means, including the forced restitution of destroyed temples, and highlights the suffering of figures like Bishop Mark of Arethusa. Julian's personal devotion to pagan rites and his philosophical disdain for Christian discord are also explored, setting the stage for his Persian campaign.
Chapter 29
The Retreat and Death of Julian
Julian's Persian campaign ends in disaster as his army, suffering from heat, famine, and constant Persian attacks, is forced to retreat. Julian is mortally wounded in battle, and his successor Jovian accepts a humiliating peace with Sapor, ceding provinces and the city of Nisibis.
Chapter 30
XXV: The Government and Death of Jovian — Election of Valentinian and Valens — Division of the Empire — Revolt of Procopius — Civil and Ecclesiastical Administration — Germany, Britain, Africa, the East, the Danube — Death of Valentinian — Succession of Gratian and Valentinian II
The chapter begins with the death of Julian and the precarious peace negotiated by Jovian, who restores Christianity and favors the Nicene creed under the influence of Athanasius. After Jovian's short reign, Valentinian is elected emperor and associates his brother Valens, making a final division of the Eastern and Western empires. The narrative covers the revolt of Procopius, the civil and ecclesiastical administration under both emperors, and a detailed military survey of five theaters of war: Germany, Britain, Africa, the East, and the Danube. Valentinian's firm and tolerant rule is contrasted with Valens's Arian leanings, leading to religious strife in the East. The chapter concludes with the death of Valentinian and the succession of his sons Gratian and Valentinian II.
Chapter 31
Chapter XXVI: The Battle of Hadrianople and the Gothic Invasion
This chapter details the Roman military campaigns against the Alemanni under Gratian, the disastrous Battle of Hadrianople under Valens, and the subsequent Gothic invasion of the Eastern provinces. It contrasts Gratian's youthful vigor and tactical success with Valens's fatal overconfidence and poor judgment, leading to a catastrophic defeat that exposed the empire to barbarian ravages. The narrative also reflects on the broader consequences of the defeat, including the sacking of cities, the flight of refugees, and the psychological impact on both Romans and Goths.
Chapter 32
Chapter XXVII
The chapter examines the decline of Roman military discipline and the rise of luxury and moral decay under Theodosius, alongside the political turmoil following the usurpation of Maximus, the flight of Valentinian's family, and Theodosius's eventual civil war victory, his marriage to Galla, and his character as a ruler.
Chapter 33
Chapter XXVIII: The Final Destruction of Paganism and the Introduction of the Worship of Saints and Relics
This chapter details the final suppression of pagan worship in the Roman Empire under Theodosius, following earlier efforts by Gratian and Valentinian. It describes the dismantling of the traditional Roman priesthood, the controversy over the Altar of Victory, the conversion of the Roman Senate, and the systematic destruction of temples. The chapter also introduces the rise of the worship of saints and relics as a replacement for pagan practices.
Chapter 34
Chapter XXIX: The Fall of Gildo and the Weakness of Honorius
This chapter details the rebellion of Gildo, the Moorish count of Africa, who exploited the weakness of Emperor Honorius and the discord between the Eastern and Western Roman empires. Stilicho, the guardian of Honorius, organizes a military response led by Gildo's brother Mascezel, while also securing Rome's grain supply. The chapter also highlights the character of Honorius, a passive and ineffective ruler, and the growing hostility between the courts of Arcadius and Honorius.
Chapter 35
Revolt of the Goths—They Plunder Greece—Two Great Invasions of Italy by Alaric and Radagaisus—They Are Repulsed by Stilicho—The Germans Overrun Gaul—Usurpation of Constantine in the West—Disgrace and Death of Stilicho
After the death of Theodosius, the Gothic nation rises in revolt under Alaric, plundering Greece and threatening Constantinople. Alaric is promoted to master-general of Eastern Illyricum and proclaimed king of the Visigoths. He invades Italy, is repulsed by Stilicho at Pollentia and Verona, but later retreats. The chapter details the decline of Roman military discipline, the political corruption under Arcadius and Honorius, and the growing power of barbarian forces.
Chapter 36
XXXI
The chapter details the invasion of Italy by Alaric, the manners of the Roman Senate and people, the three sieges and eventual pillage of Rome by the Goths, the death of Alaric, the Gothic evacuation of Italy, the fall of Constantine, the occupation of Gaul and Spain by barbarians, and the independence of Britain. It highlights the weak and distracted government of Honorius, the betrayal of Stilicho, and the disastrous consequences of ministerial folly.
Chapter 37
XXXII
The chapter details the rise and fall of the Gothic leader Gainas, who after being granted high office in Constantinople, overreaches by demanding Arian churches, leading to a popular massacre of his troops. His subsequent rebellion is crushed by Fravitta and the Huns under Uldin. It also covers the corrupt administration of the eunuch Eutropius, who sells provincial governorships and destroys rivals like Abundantius and Timasius. Finally, it recounts the Roman-Persian war, the charitable act of Bishop Acacius of Amida, and the division and decline of Armenia.
Chapter 38
Chapter XXXIII: The Vandal Conquest of Africa and the Death of St. Augustine
This chapter details the Vandal invasion of Africa under Genseric, triggered by the betrayal of Count Boniface. It describes the devastation of the Roman provinces, the siege of Hippo Regius, the death of St. Augustine, and the subsequent exile of Carthaginian nobles. The chapter also recounts the fable of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus as a contemporary legend.
Chapter 39
Chapter XXXIV: The Rise and Reign of Attila the Hun
This chapter details the character, conquests, and court of Attila, King of the Huns, focusing on his rise to power after the death of his uncle Rugilas, his humiliating treaties with the Eastern Roman Empire under Theodosius the Younger, the oppressive tribute demands, and the resilience of the city of Azimus. It also covers the death of Theodosius and the elevation of Marcian to the Eastern throne, highlighting the decline of Roman authority and the increasing power of the Huns.
Chapter 40
XXXV
Attila's invasion of Gaul is repulsed by Aetius and the Visigoths; he then invades Italy but retreats after meeting Pope Leo I. Attila dies suddenly on his wedding night, and the chapter also covers the rise and fall of Aetius and the decline of the Western Roman Empire.
Chapter 41
XXXVI
This chapter details the final collapse of the Western Roman Empire, focusing on the sack of Rome by Genseric and the Vandals, the rapid succession of weak emperors, and the eventual extinction of the imperial line with Augustulus. It describes the rise of Odoacer, the first barbarian king of Italy, and the political and military decay that allowed barbarian mercenaries to dominate and ultimately dismantle Roman authority in the West.
Chapter 42
Origin, Progress, and Effects of the Monastic Life — Conversion of the Barbarians to Christianity and Arianism — Persecution of the Vandals in Africa — Extinction of Arianism among the Barbarians
This chapter examines two major religious developments: the rise of monasticism in Egypt and the conversion of northern barbarians to Christianity, particularly Arianism. It details the ascetic practices of monks like Antony and Pachomius, the spread of monastic communities, and the cultural and political impact of barbarian conversions. It also covers the persecution of orthodox Christians by Arian Vandals in Africa and the eventual decline of Arianism among the barbarian tribes, setting the stage for later Christological controversies.
Chapter 43
XXXVIII
The chapter examines the reign and conversion of Clovis, his victories over the Alemanni, Burgundians, and Visigoths, and the establishment of the French monarchy in Gaul. It discusses the laws of the Barbarians, the state of the Romans under Germanic rule, the Visigoths of Spain, and the conquest of Britain by the Saxons. The text contrasts Roman civil order with Germanic customs, highlighting the legal and social inequalities imposed by conquest.
Chapter 44
General Observations on the Fall of the Roman Empire in the West
Gibbon reflects on the causes of Rome's decline, contrasting ancient barbarian threats with modern European security. He attributes the fall to immoderate greatness, military corruption, the division of the empire, and the influence of Christianity, while noting that Europe's current balance of power and civilized institutions provide protection against similar calamities.
Chapter 45
The Gothic Kingdom of Italy under Theodoric
Theodoric the Ostrogoth conquers Italy, establishing a kingdom that balances Gothic military might with Roman civil administration. He promotes peace, prosperity, and religious toleration, while maintaining a strict separation between the Gothic and Italian populations. His reign is marked by public works, economic revival, and diplomatic influence across Western Europe.
Chapter 46
XL
This chapter examines the reign of Justinian, focusing on his fiscal policies, military decline, and the suppression of the Isaurian revolt. It details Justinian's avarice and rapine as recorded by Procopius, including the abolition of pensions, reduction of military donatives, and harsh taxation. The chapter also discusses the extinction of the consulship, the fortification of the eastern frontier, and the subjugation of the Isaurians.
Chapter 47
Conquests of Justinian in the West
This chapter details the military campaigns of the Byzantine general Belisarius under Emperor Justinian, focusing on the conquest of the Vandal kingdom in Africa and the subsequent Gothic War in Italy. It covers Belisarius's character, his invasion and subjugation of the Vandals, his triumph in Constantinople, and the recovery of Sicily, Naples, and Rome. The siege of Rome by the Goths, their retreat, the surrender of Ravenna, and Belisarius's glory are described, along with his domestic shame and misfortunes. The chapter also discusses the internal state of the Vandal kingdom, the reign of Hilderic, the usurpation of Gelimer, and the political situation in Italy under Queen Amalasontha and her son Athalaric, including the revolt of Milan and the invasion of the Franks.
Chapter 48
XLII
This chapter examines the state of the barbarian world during the reign of Justinian, focusing on the Lombards' establishment on the Danube, the tribes and inroads of the Sclavonians, the origin and embassies of the Turks, the flight of the Avars, and the reign of Khosrow I (Nushirvan) of Persia, including his wars with the Romans and the Colchian or Lazic War. It also reflects on the relative merit of Belisarius compared to ancient heroes, the decline of Roman military discipline, and the geopolitical maneuvers of Justinian.
Chapter 49
XLIII
The chapter details the rebellions in Africa, the restoration of the Gothic kingdom by Totila, the loss and recovery of Rome, the final conquest of Italy by Narses, the extinction of the Ostrogoths, the defeat of the Franks and Alemanni, and the last victory, disgrace, and death of Belisarius, concluding with the death and character of Justinian and natural disasters such as a comet, earthquakes, and plague.
Chapter 50
XLIV
This chapter examines the evolution of Roman law from the Republic to the Empire, focusing on criminal justice, marriage and divorce, and property rights. It highlights the shift from republican liberty to imperial despotism, the moral and legal decay reflected in divorce practices, and the development of property law including inheritance and prescription.
Chapter 51
Chapter XLV: The Lombard Conquest and the Decline of Rome
This chapter details the Lombard invasion of Italy under Alboin, including the siege of Pavia, the assassination of Alboin by his wife Rosamond, and the subsequent Lombard settlement. It also covers the diplomatic encounter between the Avars and the Byzantine emperor, the laws of the Lombards, and the profound decline of Rome in the sixth century, marked by depopulation, famine, and the destruction of classical monuments.
Chapter 52
XLVI
This chapter covers the revolutions in Persia after the death of Khosrow (Nushirvan), including the tyranny of his son Hormouz, the usurpation of Bahram, and the flight and restoration of Khosrow II. It also details the revolt against the Roman emperor Maurice, his death, the tyranny of Phocas, the elevation of Heraclius, and the subsequent Persian war under Khosrow II, culminating in the siege of Constantinople and the victories of Heraclius.
Chapter 53
Chapter XLVII: Theological History of the Doctrine of the Incarnation
This chapter explores the theological disputes over the nature of Christ, the enmity between the patriarchs of Alexandria and Constantinople, the councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon, and the subsequent civil and ecclesiastical discord. It details the intolerance of Justinian, the controversy over the Three Chapters, the Monothelite controversy, and the state of the Oriental sects including the Nestorians, Jacobites, Maronites, Armenians, Copts, and Abyssinians. The chapter also covers the persecution of Samaritans, the spread of Nestorian Christianity to the East, and the political and religious dynamics of the Persian church.
Chapter 54
Chapter XLVIII: Plan of the Last Two Volumes
Gibbon outlines his plan for the final volumes of his history, covering the decline of the Byzantine Empire from Heraclius to the Latin Conquest. He discusses the succession of Greek emperors, the contraction of the empire, and the various barbarian and foreign powers—Arabs, Bulgarians, Hungarians, Russians, Normans, Latins (Crusaders), Moguls, and Turks—that pressed upon Constantinople. He reflects on the uniformity of vice and spiritual despotism under the Byzantine yoke, contrasting it with the freedom and virtue of ancient Athens.
Chapter 55
XLIX
This chapter explores the worship of images, the revolt of Italy and Rome, the temporal dominion of the popes, the conquest of Italy by the Franks, the establishment of images, the character and coronation of Charlemagne, the restoration and decay of the Roman Empire in the West, the independence of Italy, and the constitution of the Germanic Body.
Chapter 56
L
This chapter examines the pre-Islamic Arabian society, the rise of Muhammad, and the establishment of Islam. It details the Bedouin culture of rapine, revenge, and honor, the influence of trade and literature, and the character of Muhammad as both prophet and conqueror. The chapter also discusses the permanence of Islam, its simple creed, the separation of regal and sacerdotal authority, and the final days and death of Muhammad.
Chapter 57
The Arab Conquests of Persia, Syria, Egypt, Africa, and Spain
This chapter details the rapid expansion of the Arabian caliphate in the century following Muhammad's flight from Mecca, covering the conquests of Persia, Syria, Egypt, Africa, and Spain. Gibbon discusses the spirit of the Arab nation, the weakness of their enemies, and the methods of their conquests, including the invasion of Spain through the invitation of Count Julian and the subsequent campaigns of Musa and Tarik.
Chapter 58
LII
This chapter covers the two Arab sieges of Constantinople, their invasion of France and defeat by Charles Martel, the civil war between the Ommiades and Abbassides, the learning and luxury of the Arabs, naval enterprises on Crete, Sicily, and Rome, and the decay and division of the caliphs' empire, including the defeats and victories of the Greek emperors.
Chapter 59
LIII: Fate of the Eastern Empire in the Tenth Century
This chapter examines the state of the Byzantine Empire in the tenth century, focusing on its administrative structure, military tactics, cultural decline, and the loss of Latin as a living language. It critiques the works of Constantine Porphyrogenitus and Leo the Philosopher, highlighting the decay of Roman institutions and the rise of Greek as the dominant language. The chapter also contrasts the martial vigor of the Franks and Saxons with the perceived decadence of the Byzantines, and traces the gradual separation of Italy and the final revolt that ended Byzantine rule there.
Chapter 60
LIV
This chapter examines the origin, doctrine, and persecution of the Paulicians by the Greek emperors, their revolt in Armenia, transplantation into Thrace, and propagation in the West, highlighting their role as seeds of the Reformation.
Chapter 61
LV
This chapter examines the migrations, invasions, and settlements of the Bulgarians, Hungarians, and Russians from the seventh to the twelfth century, their conflicts with the Byzantine and Germanic empires, and the eventual conversion of these barbarian peoples.
Chapter 62
Chapter LVI: The Saracens, Franks, and Greeks in Italy – The Normans
This chapter recounts the complex interplay of Saracens, Franks, and Greeks in southern Italy, focusing on the rise of the Normans. It details the initial conflicts among Lombard princes, the Saracen invasions, and the temporary alliance between the Eastern and Western empires. The narrative then shifts to the Norman conquest of Naples and Sicily under Robert Guiscard and his brother Roger, their conflicts with the Byzantine and German emperors, and the eventual establishment of the Norman kingdom. The chapter concludes with the wars between the Normans and the Emperor Manuel Comnenus, and the extinction of the Norman dynasty.
Chapter 63
LVII: The Turks of the House of Seljuk
This chapter details the rise of the Seljuk Turks from their origins as northern shepherds to the establishment of a vast empire spanning from Samarkand to the confines of Greece and Egypt. It covers the conquests of Mahmud of Gazna in Hindostan, the defeat and captivity of Romanus Diogenes by Alp Arslan, the subsequent conquest of Asia Minor and Syria, and the state of Jerusalem under Turkish rule. The narrative highlights the decline of Byzantine power in the East and the spread of Islam.
Chapter 64
The First Crusade and the Establishment of the Kingdom of Jerusalem
This chapter details the popular fervor and chaotic early waves of the First Crusade, focusing on the mass movements led by Peter the Hermit and other preachers, the massacres of Jewish communities along the Rhine, the disastrous journey through Hungary and Bulgaria, and the eventual defeat of the peasant crusaders by the Turks. It then shifts to the more organized campaign of the noble crusaders, culminating in the capture of Jerusalem, the election of Godfrey of Bouillon as its ruler, the battle of Ascalon, and the early political and ecclesiastical struggles that shaped the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem.
Chapter 65
LIX: Preservation of the Greek Empire, Second and Third Crusades, Saladin, and the Later Crusades
This chapter covers the preservation of the Greek (Byzantine) Empire after the First Crusade, the passage and events of the Second and Third Crusades, the rise of Saladin in Egypt and Syria, his conquest of Jerusalem, the naval crusades involving Richard I of England, the crusades under Pope Innocent III, the Fourth and Fifth Crusades, the crusade of Emperor Frederick II, the two crusades of Louis IX of France, and the final expulsion of the Latins by the Mamelukes. It details the cunning diplomacy of Emperor Alexius, the conflicts between the crusaders and Byzantines, and the character and conquests of Saladin.
Chapter 66
LX
The schism between the Greek and Latin churches is examined, leading to the state of Constantinople under the Angeloi, the revolt of the Bulgarians, and the deposition of Isaac Angelus by his brother Alexius. The Fourth Crusade originates from an alliance between French crusaders, Venetians, and the young Alexius, resulting in two sieges and the final conquest of Constantinople by the Latins.
Chapter 67
LXI: Partition of the Empire by the French and Venetians — Five Latin Emperors — Their Wars — Weakness and Poverty of the Latin Empire — Recovery of Constantinople by the Greeks — General Consequences of the Crusades
After the conquest of Constantinople, the French and Venetians divide the empire, elect Baldwin of Flanders as emperor, and establish the Latin Empire. The chapter traces the subsequent weakness and poverty of the Latin regime, its wars against Bulgarians and Greeks, and the eventual recovery of Constantinople by the Greeks under Michael Palaeologus. Gibbon also reflects on the broader consequences of the Crusades, arguing they hindered rather than helped European progress, though they inadvertently weakened feudalism and spurred the rise of commerce and liberty.
Chapter 68
The Greek Emperors of Nice and Constantinople
This chapter details the restoration of Greek power after the loss of Constantinople, focusing on the reigns of Theodore Lascaris and John Ducas Vataces at Nice, the rise of Michael Palaeologus, his false union with the Latin Church, the hostile designs of Charles of Anjou, the Sicilian revolt, the destructive campaign of the Catalan mercenaries in Asia and Greece, and the revolutions and state of Athens.
Chapter 69
Civil Wars and the Ruin of the Greek Empire
This chapter covers the reigns of Andronicus the Elder and Younger, the regency and revolt of John Cantacuzene, and the establishment of a Genoese colony at Pera. It details the internal conflicts of the Greek church, the invasion of the Catalans, the rise of the Ottoman power, and the naval war between Venice and Genoa that left Constantinople weakened and dependent on Genoese trade.
Chapter 70
Conquests of Zingis Khan and the Moguls
This chapter traces the rise of the Mogul and Ottoman empires, beginning with the unification of the pastoral tribes under Zingis Khan (Temugin) and his conquests from China to Poland. It then shifts to the origin and expansion of the Ottoman Turks in Bithynia, detailing the reigns of Othman, Orchan, Amurath I, and Bajazet I, and the growing threat to Constantinople and the Greek Empire. The chapter highlights the military discipline, religious tolerance, and legal code of Zingis, as well as the eventual clash between the Ottomans and the Mogul conqueror Timour, which delayed the fall of Constantinople by fifty years.
Chapter 71
Chapter LXV: The Ottoman Resurgence and the Siege of Constantinople
This chapter details the Ottoman recovery after Timur's invasion, the civil wars among Bajazet's sons, the role of the Byzantine emperor Manuel in manipulating Ottoman succession, the rise of Amurath II, and the failed siege of Constantinople in 1422. It contrasts the transient empire of Timur with the resilient Ottoman monarchy, emphasizing the personal qualities of the sultans and the internal and external pressures on the Byzantine Empire.
Chapter 72
Applications of the Eastern Emperors to the Popes — Visits to the West of John the First, Manuel, and John the Second, Palaeologus — Union of the Greek and Latin Churches — State of Literature at Constantinople — Its Revival in Italy by the Greek Fugitives — Curiosity and Emulation of the Latins
This chapter traces the diplomatic and religious interactions between the Byzantine emperors and the Roman popes from the 14th to the 15th centuries, focusing on the efforts to reunite the Greek and Latin churches amid the Turkish threat. It details the missions of John Vataces, the younger Andronicus, and John Palaeologus, the negotiations at the Council of Basil and the Council of Ferrara-Florence, and the eventual union signed in 1439. The chapter also discusses the state of Greek literature in Constantinople and its revival in Italy through the work of Greek scholars like Bessarion, who helped spark the Renaissance.
Chapter 73
Schism of the Greeks and Latins — Reign and Character of Amurath the Second — Crusade of Ladislaus, King of Hungary — His defeat and death — John Huniades — Scanderbeg — Constantine Palaeologus, last emperor of the East
This chapter contrasts the grandeur of Rome and Constantinople through the eyes of the Greek orator Chrysoloras, then details the reign of Sultan Amurath II, his double abdication, and the crusade of Ladislaus of Hungary. It covers the defeat at Varna, the military career of John Huniades, and the defense of Belgrade against Muhammad II, ending with the rise of Matthias Corvinus.
Chapter 74
The Fall of Constantinople
This chapter details the final siege and conquest of Constantinople by Sultan Muhammad II in 1453, focusing on the desperate defense by Emperor Constantine Palaeologus, the discord among the Christian defenders, the overwhelming Ottoman assault, and the subsequent capture and plunder of the city. It also covers the aftermath, including the subjugation of the Morea and the fall of Trebizond, ending the last remnants of the Byzantine Empire.
Chapter 75
State of Rome from the Twelfth Century: Temporal Dominion of the Popes and the Restoration of the Republic
This chapter examines the state and revolutions of Rome from the twelfth century onward, focusing on the temporal dominion of the popes, the seditions of the city, the political heresy of Arnold of Brescia, the restoration of the Republic, the pride and wars of the Romans, the removal of the popes to Avignon, the institution of the Jubilee, and the feuds of the noble families, particularly the Colonna and Ursini.
Chapter 76
Chapter LXX
This chapter examines the political and moral state of Rome from the 14th to the 18th century, focusing on the rise and fall of Cola di Rienzi as tribune, the shifting power of the papacy, and the eventual subjugation of Rome under Spanish and ecclesiastical despotism. It contrasts the brief republican revival under Rienzi with the later stagnation and servitude of the city under clerical rule.
Chapter 77
LXXI: Prospect of the Ruins of Rome in the Fifteenth Century
Gibbon reflects on the physical decay of Rome, attributing it to four causes: the ravages of time, the barbarian invasions, the zeal of the Christians, and the neglect of the popes. He describes the desolate state of the city as seen by Poggius in the 15th century, the survival of certain monuments, and the gradual renovation of Rome under the popes. The chapter concludes with a summary of the entire Decline and Fall, emphasizing the interconnected causes of Rome's fall and the enduring legacy of its ruins.
Chapter 78
Appendix
The appendix contains maps of the northwest, northeast, southwest, and southeast regions of the Roman Empire, providing geographical context for the historical narrative.
Chapter 79
Endnotes
The endnotes provide critical commentary and references on Roman slavery, the persecution of Christians, and the influence of Christianity, with notes from Guizot, Milman, and other scholars challenging or expanding Gibbon's arguments.
Chapter 80
List of Illustrations
This chapter provides a list of maps illustrating the northwest, northeast, southwest, and southeast regions of the Roman Empire.
