The Federalist Papers · Chapter
LXX: The Executive Department Further Considered explained
Hamilton argues that a vigorous, unified executive is essential to good republican government, defending the necessity of energy in the executive for national security, law enforcement, and protection against faction and anarchy.
What happens
Hamilton argues that a vigorous, unified executive is essential to good republican government, defending the necessity of energy in the executive for national security, law enforcement, and protection against faction and anarchy. He examines the ingredients of executive energy—unity, duration, adequate support, and competent powers—and contrasts them with the republican requirements of dependence on the people and responsibility. He criticizes plural executives and executive councils, using historical examples from Rome and the Achaeans to show that plurality leads to dissension, weakened execution, and diminished accountability, ultimately concluding that a single executive is safer and more effective for liberty.
Themes in this chapter
Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances
Hamilton discusses the proper structure of the executive branch and its relationship to the legislature, emphasizing the need for unity and energy while maintaining republican accountability.
Human Nature and the Capacity for Self-Government
The argument reflects assumptions about human ambition and faction, and the need for a strong executive to check these tendencies.
National Security and Foreign Relations
Energy in the executive is deemed essential for protection against foreign attacks and for the conduct of war.
Characters to notice
- Publius
The authorial voice arguing for a single, energetic executive.
- Alexander Hamilton
The actual author of this Federalist Paper, writing as Publius.
- The Achaeans
Cited as an example of a confederacy that abolished one of two praetors after an experiment with plurality in the executive.
- The Senate
Referenced indirectly in the context of councils and legislative bodies, though not directly named.
- Congress
Implied as the legislative body to which the executive is contrasted.
Key passages
“Energy in the Executive is a leading character in the definition of good government.”
A strong executive is a key feature of good government.
Hamilton's central thesis that executive energy is essential.
“A feeble Executive implies a feeble execution of the government. A feeble execution is but another phrase for a bad execution; and a government ill executed, whatever it may be in theory, must be, in practice, a bad government.”
A weak executive leads to poor implementation of laws, making any government bad in practice regardless of its theoretical merits.
Hamilton argues that effective execution is crucial for good government.
“The ingredients which constitute energy in the Executive are, first, unity; secondly, duration; thirdly, an adequate provision for its support; fourthly, competent powers.”
The components of executive energy are unity, length of term, sufficient funding, and appropriate authority.
Hamilton outlines the four key elements of a vigorous executive.
“The plurality of the Executive tends to deprive the people of the two greatest securities they can have for the faithful exercise of any delegated power, first, the restraints of public opinion... and, secondly, the opportunity of discovering with facility and clearness the misconduct of the persons they trust.”
Having multiple executives undermines public accountability by diffusing blame and making it hard to identify misconduct.
Hamilton's critique of plural executives as reducing responsibility.
