The Federalist Papers · Chapter
Federalist No. 51: The Structure of the Government Must Furnish the Proper Checks and Balances Between the Different Departments explained
Madison argues that the internal structure of the government must be designed so that each department can resist encroachments by the others, using ambition to counteract ambition.
What happens
Madison argues that the internal structure of the government must be designed so that each department can resist encroachments by the others, using ambition to counteract ambition. He explains that in a republican government, the legislative branch naturally predominates, so it must be divided into two houses. He also introduces the concept of a 'compound republic' where power is divided between state and federal governments, providing a double security for the people's rights. The extended sphere of the Union helps control faction by making it difficult for an unjust majority to form.
Themes in this chapter
Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances
Madison details how the interior structure of government must be arranged so that each department has the means and motives to resist encroachments, famously stating 'ambition must be made to counteract ambition.'
Control of Faction and Majority Tyranny
Madison argues that in an extended republic, the multiplicity of interests and sects makes it unlikely that an unjust majority can form, thus protecting minority rights.
Characters to notice
- James Madison
Author of the essay, presenting the argument for internal checks and balances.
- Publius
The collective pseudonym under which the essay is published, addressing the people of New York.
Key passages
“Ambition must be made to counteract ambition. The interest of the man must be connected with the constitutional rights of the place.”
Each government official's personal ambition should be aligned with the legal powers of their office, so they naturally resist any encroachment by other branches.
Core principle of checks and balances: using self-interest to protect constitutional boundaries.
“If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary.”
Because humans are not perfect, government is needed; and because rulers are also human, controls on government are essential.
Madison's realistic view of human nature underpins the need for both external and internal restraints on power.
“In the compound republic of America, the power surrendered by the people is first divided between two distinct governments, and then the portion allotted to each subdivided among distinct and separate departments. Hence a double security arises to the rights of the people.”
The American system divides power first between state and federal governments, and then among the three branches of each, creating two layers of protection for citizens' rights.
Key innovation of federalism combined with separation of powers.