The Columbiad · Chapters
Chapters explained
Chapter companions for The Columbiad by Joel Barlow.
Chapter 1
Epigraph
The epigraph from Tasso's Gerusalemme Liberta invokes Columbus as a figure whose future voyages will surpass the fame of ancient heroes, suggesting his deeds will be worthy of epic poetry and history.
Chapter 2
The Columbiad
The opening of the epic poem invokes the muse and sets the stage for the story of Columbus and the discovery of America, blending mythological and historical elements to frame the narrative of exploration and the founding of a new world.
Chapter 3
Book I
Columbus, imprisoned in Valladolid, laments his fate and the ingratitude of Spain. The guardian spirit Hesper appears, consoles him, and leads him to a mount of vision where he sees the future of the American continent, its geography, and the promise of freedom.
Chapter 4
Book II
Columbus, guided by Hesper, witnesses a vision of the native peoples of America, their diverse tribes and customs. He questions the causes of human diversity across regions. Hesper explains that variations in climate, soil, and elemental proportions shape both body and mind. Columbus then views Mexico and its destruction by Cortez, and the cities of Cusco and Quito in Peru. Hesper recounts the tradition of Capac and Oella, founders of the Incan empire, revealing the stratagems they used to establish their rule, including feigning divine descent from the Sun. The chapter concludes with Hesper consoling Columbus about the future tyranny of Pizarro and the enduring value of his own discoveries.
Chapter 5
Book III
The Inca Capac faces a massive invasion by mountain savages. His son Rocha is sent to offer peace but is captured. During the battle, an eclipse terrifies the Peruvians, who flee to Cusco. Oella mourns Rocha, but the sun returns, revealing Rocha alive on an altar. The Peruvians rally, defeat the savages, kill Zamor, and recover Rocha, establishing peace.
Chapter 6
Book IV
Hesper foretells the destruction of Peru, causing Columbus grief. Hesper comforts him with a vision of future ages, showing the effect of the discovery of America on Europe: improved commerce, government, revival of letters, the rise of the Jesuits, religious persecution, the Inquisition, and the growth of liberal principles. The vision includes Raleigh's plan to settle North America, the formation of the coast by the Gulf Stream, the nature of colonial establishments as an asylum of liberty, and Delaware's arrival to consolidate Virginia. A night scene on the Chesapeake features a prophetic speech by Potomac and fleets of settlers steering for America.
Chapter 7
Book V
Columbus observes the progress of European colonies in North America, including conflicts with Native Americans, the French and Indian War, and the early stages of the American Revolution. He witnesses Braddock's defeat, Washington's rise, the convening of the Continental Congress, and the outbreak of war, including the burning of towns and the Battle of Bunker Hill.
Chapter 8
Book VI
This chapter details British atrocities against American prisoners, particularly on prison ships, Washington's daring crossing of the Delaware, the Battle of Saratoga, and the tragic story of Lucinda.
Chapter 9
Book VII
Washington leads allied forces to victory at the Siege of Yorktown, culminating in Cornwallis's surrender. The chapter also depicts the naval battle between the French and British fleets, the mining and explosion of a British fort, and subsequent campaigns including the Battle of Monmouth.
Chapter 10
Book VIII
The poet celebrates the return of Peace after the Revolutionary War, eulogizes fallen heroes including his brother, and exhorts survivors to guard liberty. He warns against slavery and inequality, invoking Atlas's denunciation of African enslavement. Hesper then reverses time to show Columbus the savage state of America and the subsequent progress of arts and commerce.
Chapter 11
Book IX
From the Mount of Vision, Columbus questions Hesper about the slow and interrupted progress of science. Hesper explains that all things—physical, moral, and intellectual—are progressive, tracing the universe's evolution from chaos to the present. Columbus expresses fear of future cycles of decline, but Hesper distinguishes ancient from modern society, citing the Crusades, commerce, the Hanseatic League, Copernicus, Kepler, Newton, Galileo, Herschel, Descartes, Bacon, the printing press, the magnetic needle, geographical discoveries, and the federal system in America as evidence of enduring progress. He envisions a future of perpetual peace and a global federal system. Columbus asks to see this future, and Hesper consents.
Chapter 12
Book X
Hesper extends Columbus's vision to encompass the entire earth, showing the present state and future progress of nations through commerce, discovery, and the unification of languages. The vision culminates in a general congress of all nations establishing political harmony, with Columbus longing for the apocalyptic vision of peace.
Chapter 13
Endnotes
The author provides extensive endnotes to the poem, explaining mythological, historical, and philosophical allusions, including the death of Queen Isabella, the Titan origins of Atlas and Hesper, the solar worship of Hispaniola's natives, the geography of the Maragnon River, the institutions of Manco Capac compared to other lawgivers, and the contrasting colonial systems of France and England in North America.
