The Art of War · Chapter
Apologies for War explained
This chapter presents a defense of the study and practice of military science, arguing that war is a legitimate function of government and that great sages like Confucius were not ignorant of military matters.
What happens
This chapter presents a defense of the study and practice of military science, arguing that war is a legitimate function of government and that great sages like Confucius were not ignorant of military matters. It includes passages from Ssǔ-ma Ch'ien and Tu Mu that justify warfare as a means of punishment and order, and critiques those who dismiss military theory as immoral or useless.
Themes in this chapter
Moral Law and Unity
The chapter argues that war is a form of punishment and a function of government, aligning with the idea that military action serves moral order.
Psychology and Morale
Discusses the natural human propensity to fight when attacked, and the need for a general to be in constant practice to avoid hazarding lives.
Deception and Stratagem
Defends the use of guile and stratagem in war, citing examples like Confucius violating an oath and leaving Sung in disguise.
Characters to notice
- Sun Tzǔ
Cited as the author of the 13 chapters on war, employed by Wu Tzǔ-hsü, and essential for generals to study.
- Tu Mu
Wrote a preface to his commentary on Sun Tzǔ, arguing that war is a form of punishment and a function of government.
- Ssǔ-ma Ch'ien
Quoted as defending the use of military weapons to punish violence and cruelty, and criticizing scholars who oppose militarism.
- Confucius
Discussed as having both civil and military functions; his words 'If I fight, I conquer' are cited to show his competence in war.
- Chao Kua
Mentioned as a negative example of one who pored over his father's books on war to no purpose, used by critics to dismiss military theory.
- Sun Hsing-yen
Editor of Sun Tzǔ, quoted in support of the view that Confucius was not ignorant of military matters.
- Chu Hsi
Noted as holding Sun Tzǔ in high esteem, appealing to the authority of the Classics.
- Han Hsin
Listed among China's great captains, emerging after the breakup of the Ch'in dynasty.
Key passages
“Military weapons are the means used by the Sage to punish violence and cruelty, to give peace to troublous times, to remove difficulties and dangers, and to succor those who are in peril.”
Weapons are tools for sages to enforce justice, restore peace, and aid the endangered.
From Ssǔ-ma Ch'ien, justifying military force as a moral instrument.
“War may be defined as punishment, which is one of the functions of government.”
War is a form of governmental punishment.
From Tu Mu's preface, framing war as an extension of civil authority.
“If I fight, I conquer.”
When I engage in battle, I am victorious.
Attributed to Confucius, used to argue that he was not ignorant of military matters.