The Age of Reason · Chapters
Chapters explained
Chapter companions for The Age of Reason by Thomas Paine.
Chapter 1
Editor's Introduction
Moncure Daniel Conway's introduction provides historical context for Paine's 'The Age of Reason', discussing the circumstances of its composition, Paine's early intentions to write on religion, his astronomical interests, and the textual history of the work. Conway highlights Paine's deist upbringing among Quakers, the persecution of the book, and its lasting significance in theistic thought, particularly Paine's shift from Newtonian deism to a moral foundation for belief in God.
Chapter 2
The Age of Reason
Thomas Paine introduces his work as an investigation of true and fabulous theology, declaring his intention to examine the Bible and Christian doctrine critically. He professes his belief in one God and hopes for happiness beyond this life, while denouncing all national churches and systems of religion that have been established to terrify and enslave mankind.
Chapter 3
The Author's Profession of Faith
Thomas Paine explains his long-held intention to publish his thoughts on religion, precipitated by the French Revolution's abolition of the priesthood. He professes his deist faith: belief in one God, equality of man, and religious duties of justice, mercy, and promoting happiness. He rejects all established churches as human inventions for power and profit, and argues that mental dishonesty in professing false beliefs is destructive to morality. He predicts that political revolution will lead to religious revolution, restoring pure belief in one God.
Chapter 4
II: Of Missions and Revelations
Paine argues that all national religions claim a special divine mission, but that revelation is only valid for the first recipient; all subsequent accounts are hearsay. He critiques the stories of Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad as second-hand evidence, and traces Christian mythology to pagan roots, asserting that the Church adapted heathen idolatry for power and profit.
Chapter 5
III: Concerning the Character of Jesus Christ, and His History
Paine distinguishes between the historical Jesus, whom he praises as a virtuous and amiable moral teacher, and the supernatural narratives of the New Testament, which he argues are fraudulent. He contends that the accounts of Jesus' resurrection and ascension lack credible evidence, relying on hearsay and a small number of witnesses, and that the Jews, as descendants of those living at the time, deny the story. Paine suggests Jesus was executed due to the hostility of the Jewish priesthood and possible Roman fears, portraying him as a reformer and revolutionist.
Chapter 6
Of the Bases of Christianity
Paine argues that Christian mythology is derived from ancient pagan myths, particularly the fable of Jupiter and the Giants, and that the story of Satan, the fall of man, and the sacrifice of Jesus Christ is a fabricated narrative built upon Jewish traditions and earlier mythologies.
Chapter 7
V: Examination in Detail of the Preceding Bases
Paine dissects the Christian story of Satan's fall and the redemption, arguing that it is absurd, derogatory to the Almighty, and contradictory. He notes that the story grants Satan omnipresence and power equal to or greater than God's, and criticizes the notion of God sacrificing himself on a cross. Paine suggests that credulity stems from education and emotional enthusiasm, not reason.
Chapter 8
VI: Of the True Theology
Paine contrasts the grandeur and benevolence of the natural world—a creation that provides for humanity without cost—with the gloomy and sacrificial narratives of Christian theology. He argues that the visible universe itself offers ample grounds for gratitude and admiration, and he asserts that the suspicion of Christian doctrine as fabulous is widespread. To comfort those in doubt, he resolves to proceed with a free investigation of the Old and New Testaments.
Chapter 9
VII: Examination of the Old Testament
Paine challenges the divine authority of the Old Testament, arguing that its books were selected by church vote rather than divine origin. He redefines 'prophet' as poet or musician, dismissing prophetic claims and condemning the Bible's immoral tales, while praising the Psalms and Proverbs as ethical works.
Chapter 10
VIII: Of the New Testament
Paine critiques the New Testament, arguing that Jesus Christ did not found a new religion but called for moral virtues and belief in one God. He questions the authenticity of the Gospels and epistles, dismissing them as anecdotal and possibly forged. He attacks the doctrine of redemption as a fabrication based on pecuniary justice, not moral justice, and argues that it undermines reason and leads to superstitious practices.
Chapter 11
IX: In What the True Revelation Consists
Paine argues that the true word of God is not found in scripture but in the creation itself, which speaks a universal language accessible to all people, independent of human languages and translations. He contends that human language is local and changeable, incapable of serving as a means of universal revelation, and that the creation alone reveals God's power, wisdom, munificence, and mercy.
Chapter 12
X: Concerning God, and the Lights Cast on His Existence and Attributes by the Bible
Paine argues that the only idea of God is as a first cause, discovered through reason and the evidence of creation, not through the Bible. He praises Job and the 19th Psalm as true deistical compositions that treat of God through his works, and contrasts them with the New Testament writings, which he finds lacking in conveying any idea of God.
Chapter 13
XI: Of the Theology of the Christians; and the True Theology
Paine contrasts Christian theology, which he calls a species of atheism centered on man rather than God, with true theology derived from the study of nature and science. He argues that the Christian system obscures reason and replaces the study of God's works with human opinions. Paine emphasizes that scientific principles are eternal and divine, not human inventions, and that the structure of the universe teaches man science and the arts, inviting him to study and imitation.
Chapter 14
XII: The Effects of Christianism on Education; Proposed Reforms
Paine argues that the Christian system has deliberately suppressed scientific learning by restricting education to the study of dead languages, thereby stifling reason and the knowledge of God's creation. He contrasts the Greek model of education—focused on science and philosophy—with the Christian model of linguistry, and calls for abolishing the study of dead languages in favor of scientific knowledge. He cites historical persecution of scientists like Galileo and Virgilius, and credits the Reformation with reviving the sciences, though not true religious reform.
Chapter 15
XIII: Comparison of Christianism with the Religious Ideas Inspired by Nature
Paine contrasts the Christian system with the evidence of nature and the universe, recounting his early doubts about Christian doctrine, his education in science, and his argument for a plurality of worlds. He criticizes Christian mythology, especially the story of redemption, and advocates for Deism as a pure and simple faith based on contemplation of the Creator's works.
Chapter 16
System of the Universe
Paine describes the structure of the solar system, detailing the Sun, six planets, and their motions, and argues for a plurality of worlds, suggesting that fixed stars are other suns with their own systems, filling the immensity of space.
Chapter 17
XV: Advantages of the Existence of Many Worlds in Each Solar System
Paine argues that the plurality of worlds within each solar system is a deliberate design by the Creator to provide humanity with the scientific knowledge derived from observing planetary revolutions. He contends that a single globe would lack the motion necessary to teach science, which underpins the mechanical arts and human comfort. Paine extends this benefit to inhabitants of other worlds, who likewise observe each other's motions, forming a universal school of science. This contemplation enlarges our understanding of the Creator's wisdom and beneficence, replacing the solitary idea of a single world with a cheerful society of worlds that instructs humanity.
Chapter 18
XVI: Application of the Preceding to the System of the Christians
Paine applies his earlier arguments about the vastness of the universe to critique the Christian system, which he sees as absurdly centered on a single world and the story of Adam and Eve. He argues that rejecting the evidence of creation leads to fabricated religious systems, and he suggests that Christianity may have originated as a pious fraud that later became entrenched through institutional interests and persecution of science.
Chapter 19
XVII: Of the Means Employed in All Time, and Almost Universally, to Deceive the Peoples
Paine argues that mystery, miracle, and prophecy are the three principal means used throughout history to deceive people and impose false religions. He contends that true religion, based on the belief in a God of moral truth and the practice of moral goodness, is free from mystery and accessible to all. Miracles are dismissed as improbable and unnecessary, serving only to obscure truth, while prophecies are seen as vague and unreliable, often manipulated by commentators. Paine concludes that these three elements belong to fabulous systems, not true religion.
Chapter 20
Recapitulation
Paine summarizes his arguments against the idea of a written word of God, asserting that the creation itself is the true word of God, and that moral duty consists of imitating God's goodness and beneficence. He concludes by affirming a belief in a future existence and advocating for a universal religion that strips away redundant beliefs, leaving the original deist faith.
Chapter 21
I: The Old Testament
Paine argues that the Bible must first be proven true before it can be used as evidence for anything. He condemns the violent acts attributed to God in the Old Testament, such as the slaughter of entire nations including infants, as morally repugnant and inconsistent with divine justice. He then examines the book of Jeremiah, pointing out its historical contradictions and disordered narrative, and concludes that the prophets are impostors and the lesser prophets are best forgotten. He ends by transitioning to the New Testament.
Chapter 22
II: The New Testament
Paine systematically attacks the authenticity and consistency of the New Testament, arguing that the Gospels are contradictory forgeries written long after the events they describe. He highlights the irreconcilable genealogies of Jesus in Matthew and Luke, dismisses the story of the resurrection as a common apparition tale, and denounces the epistles of Paul as the work of a fanatic. Paine concludes that the New Testament is a collection of improbable, indecent, and contradictory tales, urging readers to embrace deism instead.
Chapter 23
III: Conclusion
In the conclusion of Part II, Paine reiterates his rejection of revealed religion and the Bible as impositions and forgeries, advocating instead for a natural theology based on the 'Bible of the creation'—the universe and its scientific principles. He argues that true knowledge of God comes from observing the order and laws of nature, not from scripture or church teachings, and that science and reason lead to genuine reverence and gratitude toward the Creator. Paine condemns revealed religion as the source of historical atrocities and calls for a revolution in religion where preachers are philosophers and houses of devotion become schools of science.
Chapter 24
To the Ministers and Preachers of All Denominations of Religion
Paine addresses religious ministers directly, arguing that it is every person's duty to expose delusion and error. He systematically denies that Old Testament passages are prophecies of Jesus Christ, asserting they refer only to contemporary Jewish circumstances. He criticizes preachers who promote belief in salvation through faith or predestination, arguing such doctrines demoralize humanity and encourage sin. Paine frames his religious writings as parallel to his political works, aiming to elevate human reason and promote divine morality, justice, mercy, and benevolence, free from the fables of scripture.
Chapter 25
An Essay on Dreams
Paine analyzes the nature of dreams through the faculties of imagination, judgment, and memory, arguing that dreams are unreliable and irrational. He then attacks the New Testament's reliance on dreams—especially Joseph's dream about the Holy Ghost—as a foundation for Christian belief, and extends his critique to the absurdities and contradictions in both the Old and New Testaments, contrasting them with the majesty of the universe and the true God of reason.
Chapter 26
An Examination of the Passages in the New Testament
Paine systematically examines passages from the New Testament, particularly the Gospel of Matthew, that claim to be prophecies of Jesus Christ from the Old Testament. He argues that these passages are misapplied, often taken out of context, and do not genuinely refer to Jesus. He critiques the credibility of dreams, the invention of devil possession, and the absurdity of treating mundane details as divine prophecy. Paine concludes that the Gospel accounts are fables and falsehoods, not revealed religion.
Chapter 27
The Book of Mark
Paine examines the Gospel of Mark, arguing that its use of Old Testament prophecies is erroneous and forced. He critiques Mark's misapplication of Malachi and Isaiah, dismisses the miracle of the unbroken colt as absurd, and notes that Mark's account of the crucifixion lacks prophetic fulfillment. He concludes by mocking the promises of miraculous powers to believers.
Chapter 28
The Book of Luke
Paine examines the Gospel of Luke, highlighting contradictions with Matthew regarding Herod, the birth of Jesus, and the fate of Judas. He argues that these inconsistencies prove the books were not divinely inspired.
Chapter 29
The Book of John
Paine attacks the New Testament, arguing that Jesus Christ is an imaginary or allegorical figure, that the New Testament is filled with falsehoods and contradictions, and that the claim of prophecies about Jesus is fraudulent. He contrasts the supposed mission of Christ with the grandeur of the visible creation, asserting that a truly divine revelation would have been made universally and immediately, not through obscure, late, and human means. He concludes by invoking Dr. Conyers Middleton's argument that the law of nature revealed in creation is the true universal standard of divine truth, against which all claimed revelations must be tested.
Chapter 30
Contradictory Doctrines Between Matthew and Mark
Paine contrasts the doctrine of salvation by faith in Mark 16:16 with the doctrine of salvation by good works in Matthew 25, arguing that the latter emphasizes humanitarian acts over belief, and criticizes priests for ignoring this passage.
Chapter 31
Private Thoughts of a Future State
Paine reflects on his hope for happiness after death, leaving his fate to the Creator's justice and goodness. He criticizes the New Testament's division of humanity into righteous and wicked as absurd, arguing that moral character exists on a spectrum. He offers his own opinion that the good will be happy, the very wicked punished, and the insignificant dropped entirely.
Chapter 32
Endnotes
The endnotes provide editorial commentary and clarifications on Thomas Paine's text, including corrections, historical references, and explanations of biblical and theological points. They address Paine's use of terms, allusions to contemporary figures and events, and critical analysis of biblical inconsistencies and forgeries.
