Representative Men · Chapter
IV: Montaigne; or, the Skeptic explained
Emerson presents Montaigne as the representative skeptic, a figure who embodies the questioning of custom and the balancing of extremes.
What happens
Emerson presents Montaigne as the representative skeptic, a figure who embodies the questioning of custom and the balancing of extremes. He explores the tension between the ideal and the practical, the contemplative and the active, and argues that skepticism is a necessary stage in the development of every superior mind. Montaigne's frankness, self-awareness, and love of Socrates are highlighted, along with his enduring influence on writers like Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, and Lord Byron.
Themes in this chapter
Skepticism and Balance
Montaigne is presented as the representative skeptic, embodying the questioning of custom and the use of checks and balances in nature against exaggeration and formalism.
Action vs. Contemplation
The chapter contrasts the men of talent and action (perception of difference) with men of faith and philosophy (perception of identity), and explores the tension between the practical and the ideal.
Representative Nature of Individuals
Montaigne is chosen as the representative of skepticism, illustrating how individuals can embody broader philosophical attitudes.
Characters to notice
- Michel de Montaigne
Presented as the representative skeptic; his life, character, and writings are examined in detail, including his retirement, his honesty, and his love for Socrates.
- Socrates
Montaigne's only exception to his usual plain style; his love for Socrates causes his writing to rise to passion.
- William Shakespeare
Mentioned as having owned a copy of Florio's translation of Montaigne, the only book certainly known to have been in Shakespeare's library.
- Ben Jonson
His autograph was found in the duplicate copy of Florio's Montaigne purchased by the British Museum.
- Lord Byron
Montaigne was the only great writer of past times whom Byron read with avowed satisfaction.
- Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
Mentioned in the context of the correspondence between Goethe and Schiller, which was scarcely more kind than that of Pope and Swift in describing mankind.
- Plato
Referenced as an example of the haughty language of philosophers who speak of others as rats and mice.
- Alexander Pope
Mentioned in the context of the correspondence between Pope and Swift describing mankind as monsters.
Key passages
“Que sais-je? What do I know.”
Montaigne's famous motto expresses his fundamental skepticism and the limits of human knowledge.
Emerson uses this to encapsulate Montaigne's philosophical stance.
“Skepticism is the attitude assumed by the student in relation to the particulars which society adores, but which he sees to be reverent only in their tendency and spirit.”
Skepticism is the posture of a learner toward the things society worships, recognizing that their value lies in their direction and essence, not in themselves.
Emerson defines skepticism as a necessary stage of intellectual growth.
“Life is a pitching of this penny—heads or tails.”
Life is like flipping a coin, presenting two opposing faces such as infinite and finite, relative and absolute.
Emerson uses this metaphor to illustrate the dual nature of reality and thought.
