Leviathan · Chapters
Chapters explained
Chapter companions for Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes.
Chapter 1
Dedication
Thomas Hobbes dedicates his work 'Leviathan' to Mr. Francis Godolphin, honoring his deceased brother Sidney Godolphin and explaining his intent to navigate between excessive liberty and excessive authority in advancing civil power.
Chapter 2
Leviathan
The opening of Hobbes's Leviathan introduces the work's central concern: the matter, form, and power of a commonwealth, both ecclesiastical and civil. It sets the stage for a systematic inquiry into human nature, the social contract, and the necessity of a sovereign authority to prevent the war of all against all.
Chapter 3
Part I: Of Man
Hobbes introduces his philosophical anthropology, beginning with sensation and imagination, then moving to the passions, speech, reason, and the voluntary motions that drive human action. He lays the groundwork for understanding human nature as the foundation for political philosophy.
Chapter 4
I: Of Sense
Hobbes begins his examination of human thought by analyzing sense perception. He argues that all conceptions originate from sensory experience, where external objects press upon bodily organs, causing motions that produce appearances or 'fancies.' He contrasts this mechanistic view with the Aristotelian doctrine of 'visible species' and criticizes the universities for their reliance on insignificant speech.
Chapter 5
Of Imagination
Hobbes defines imagination as 'decaying sense,' explaining how sensory impressions persist and fade over time. He distinguishes between simple and compound imagination, discusses dreams as products of bodily motions, and critiques superstitious beliefs in spirits and witches, arguing that such fancies undermine civil obedience.
Chapter 6
III: Of the Consequence or Train of Imaginations
Hobbes explores the nature of mental discourse, distinguishing between unguided trains of thought and regulated sequences directed by desire or design. He examines how memory, experience, and prudence shape our ability to infer causes and effects, and argues that all conceptions are finite and derived from sense, leading to the conclusion that the infinite is inconceivable and that God is honored rather than comprehended.
Chapter 7
Of Speech
Hobbes explores the origin, use, and abuse of speech, emphasizing its role in enabling reason, science, and the registration of thought through names and definitions. He distinguishes between proper and universal names, explains how truth and falsehood arise from the correct ordering of names in affirmations, and warns against the inconstant signification of words influenced by passion.
Chapter 8
Of Reason and Science
Hobbes defines reason as a form of reckoning—adding and subtracting consequences of general names. He distinguishes between prudence (gained by experience) and science (certain knowledge of consequences), warns against absurdities caused by ambiguous language and metaphors, and argues that true science requires exact definitions and orderly method.
Chapter 9
VI: Of the Interior Beginnings of Voluntary Motions; Commonly Called the Passions; and the Speeches by Which They Are Expressed
This chapter defines the internal origins of voluntary motion, distinguishing vital from animal motions. It introduces 'endeavour' as the small beginning of motion, leading to appetite/desire and aversion. Hobbes systematically catalogs the passions (hope, despair, fear, courage, anger, etc.) and their expressions, linking them to good and evil as relative to individual desire. He also discusses deliberation, will, and the nature of felicity as continual success, not perpetual tranquility.
Chapter 10
VII: Of the Ends, or Resolutions of Discourse
Hobbes examines the ends of discourse, distinguishing between opinion, judgment, science, and faith. He argues that no discourse can yield absolute knowledge of fact, only conditional knowledge of consequences. He explores the nature of conscience, belief, and faith, emphasizing that faith in authority is ultimately faith in men, not in God.
Chapter 11
VIII: Of the Virtues Commonly Called Intellectual, and Their Contrary Defects
Hobbes distinguishes between natural wit (fancy and judgment) and acquired wit (reason and science), arguing that differences in wit arise from passions, especially the desire for power. He explores how excessive passions lead to madness, and emphasizes the primacy of judgment over fancy in discourse and counsel.
Chapter 12
Of the Several Subjects of Knowledge
Hobbes distinguishes between two kinds of knowledge: knowledge of fact (sense and memory, recorded as history) and knowledge of the consequence of one affirmation to another (science, recorded in books of philosophy). He further divides history into natural history (facts independent of man's will) and civil history (voluntary actions of men in commonwealths).
Chapter 13
X: Of Power, Worth, Dignity, Honour, and Worthiness
This chapter defines power as a man's present means to obtain future apparent good, distinguishing between natural and instrumental power. It explores how power is compounded through consent in a commonwealth or faction, and examines the concepts of value, worth, honour, dignity, and worthiness. Honour is described as the manifestation of the value we set on one another, with honourable actions and qualities being signs of power. The chapter also discusses how civil honour derives from the sovereign, and distinguishes worthiness as fitness or aptitude for a particular charge, separate from merit or desert.
Chapter 14
Of the Difference of Manners
Hobbes defines 'manners' as the qualities of mankind that affect their living together in peace and unity, rather than mere social decorum. He argues that felicity is not a final end but a continual progress of desire, driven by a perpetual and restless desire for power that ceases only in death. He examines how various passions, such as competition, fear, vainglory, and ignorance, dispose men to different actions—some inclining them to obey a common power, others to stir up sedition and war. The chapter also explores how differences in knowledge and opinion lead to disputes over right and wrong, and how ignorance of causes fosters credulity, lying, and a tendency to attribute events to immediate causes.
Chapter 15
XII: Of Religion
Hobbes explores the natural seeds of religion in man, distinguishing between human politics (civil religion) and divine politics (the kingdom of God). He critiques the polytheistic and idolatrous practices of the Gentiles, who deified natural objects, accidents, and passions, and argues that religion arises from human anxiety about invisible causes. He examines how the failure of miracles, justice, and virtue in religious leaders weakens faith, citing examples from Israel and the Church of Rome, and concludes that true religion derives from acknowledgment of one eternal first mover.
Chapter 16
XIII: Of the Natural Condition of Mankind as Concerning Their Felicity and Misery
Hobbes describes the natural condition of mankind as a state of war of every man against every man, arising from equality of ability, diffidence, and glory. In this state, there is no justice, property, or society, and life is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short. The passions that incline men to peace are fear of death, desire for commodious living, and hope for industry, while reason suggests the laws of nature as articles of peace.
Chapter 17
Of the First and Second Natural Laws, and of Contracts
Hobbes defines the right of nature as the liberty each man has to use his own power for self-preservation, and distinguishes it from a law of nature, which is a precept of reason forbidding what is destructive to life. From the state of war of all against all, he derives the first fundamental law of nature: to seek peace. From this follows the second law: that a man must be willing to lay down his right to all things when others are also willing, for the sake of peace and self-defense. He explains how rights are renounced or transferred, leading to obligation and the concept of contract, covenant, and oath, noting that covenants are strengthened by fear, especially fear of invisible power.
Chapter 18
XV: Of Other Laws of Nature
Hobbes derives additional laws of nature from the fundamental law of seeking peace, including the obligation to perform covenants (the foundation of justice), the need for a coercive power to enforce covenants, the distinction between justice in foro interno and in foro externo, and the laws of equity, modesty, and acknowledgment of natural equality. He argues that justice and property only exist within a commonwealth, and that moral philosophy is the science of the laws of nature.
Chapter 19
Of Persons, Authors, and Things Personated
Hobbes defines a person as one whose words or actions are considered either as his own (natural person) or as representing another (artificial person). He distinguishes between the actor (who performs) and the author (who owns the action), establishing that authority comes from the author. He discusses how inanimate things, children, fools, and idols can be personated only under civil government, and how the true God was personated by Moses, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost. He explains how a multitude becomes one person through a representative, and the role of majority and negative voices in assemblies.
Chapter 20
Part II: Of Commonwealth
This part of the work begins the systematic discussion of the formation, rights, and nature of a commonwealth, exploring the transition from the state of nature to civil society through the institution of a sovereign power.
Chapter 21
Of the Causes, Generation, and Definition of a Commonwealth
Hobbes explains why men, driven by natural passions and the desire for self-preservation, willingly submit to a common power to escape the state of war. He argues that covenants without a sword are insufficient, and that only by uniting under one sovereign—through mutual covenants—can peace and security be achieved. He contrasts human society with that of bees and ants, highlighting the need for an artificial covenant and a common power to enforce it. This union creates the 'mortal god' Leviathan, a commonwealth defined as one person authorized by the multitude to act for their peace and defense.
Chapter 22
Of the Rights of Sovereigns by Institution
This chapter outlines the rights and faculties derived from the institution of a commonwealth by covenant. Hobbes argues that subjects cannot make a new covenant without the sovereign's permission, that the sovereign makes no covenant with subjects and thus cannot breach it, that dissenters must consent to the majority's choice, that the sovereign can do no injury to subjects, that the sovereign cannot be justly punished, and that the sovereign has the right to judge opinions and doctrines for the sake of peace.
Chapter 23
XIX: Of the Several Kinds of Commonwealth by Institution, and of Succession to the Sovereign Power
Hobbes delineates the three forms of commonwealth—monarchy, democracy, and aristocracy—based on who holds sovereign power. He argues that other names like tyranny or oligarchy are merely pejorative labels for these same forms. He compares the conveniences of each, defending monarchy against common objections, and discusses the necessity of orderly succession to prevent a return to the state of war.
Chapter 24
XX: Of Dominion Paternal, and Despotical
Hobbes distinguishes between commonwealths by institution and by acquisition, arguing that both are founded on fear and yield the same absolute sovereign rights. He examines paternal and despotical dominion, asserting that parental authority derives from the child's consent rather than generation, and that in the state of nature dominion belongs to the mother. He supports his claims with scriptural examples, concluding that subjects must not censure or dispute sovereign commands.
Chapter 25
XXI: Of the Liberty of Subjects
Hobbes defines liberty as the absence of external impediments to motion, distinguishing it from power. He argues that in a commonwealth, subjects retain liberty only in matters the sovereign has not regulated by law. He emphasizes that the sovereign's actions cannot be unjust to subjects because subjects are authors of all sovereign acts. Hobbes discusses specific liberties, such as the right to defend one's own life, the right to refuse self-incrimination, and the right to disobey commands that undermine the purpose of sovereignty (peace and defense). He also reconciles liberty with necessity, asserting that all voluntary actions proceed from a chain of causes ultimately dependent on God's will.
Chapter 26
Of Systems Subject, Political, and Private
Hobbes categorizes systems as regular or irregular, and subordinate systems as political (authorized by the sovereign) or private. He discusses the limits of power in bodies politic, the nature of provinces and colonies, the lawfulness of leagues and factions, and the conditions under which assemblies or concourses of people are lawful or unlawful.
Chapter 27
XXIII: Of the Public Ministers of Sovereign Power
Hobbes defines public ministers as those authorized by the sovereign to represent the commonwealth in specific affairs, distinguishing them from private servants. He categorizes ministers into those with general administration (protectors, regents, viceroys) and those with special administration (treasury, militia, teachers, judges). He emphasizes that all judicial authority derives from the sovereign, and discusses the proper constitution of courts, using the English system as an example. He also covers ambassadors, spies, and councillors, noting that only those acting with sovereign authority are public ministers.
Chapter 28
Of the Nutrition and Procreation of a Commonwealth
Hobbes discusses the sustenance and expansion of a commonwealth, comparing it to a natural body. He covers the distribution of land and property as acts of the sovereign, the role of money as the 'blood' of the commonwealth, and the establishment of colonies as its 'procreation.' He argues that all property rights derive from the sovereign and that subjects cannot exclude the sovereign from their lands.
Chapter 29
Of Counsel
Hobbes distinguishes counsel from command, emphasizing that true counsel aims at the benefit of the advised, not the advisor. He warns against exhortation and dehortation as corrupt forms of counsel, and outlines the qualities of a good counsellor: disinterest, clear reasoning, experience, and confidentiality. He argues that counsel is best given privately rather than in assemblies, where passion and private interest can distort advice.
Chapter 30
Of Civil Laws
Hobbes examines the nature and authority of civil laws, arguing that they derive their force from the sovereign will and are intertwined with the law of Nature. He discusses the necessity of publishing laws, the distinction between written and unwritten laws, and the relationship between civil law and natural liberty. The chapter also addresses the classification of laws, including fundamental and non-fundamental laws, and clarifies the difference between 'right' (liberty) and 'law' (obligation).
Chapter 31
Of Crimes, Excuses, and Extenuations
Hobbes distinguishes between sin and crime, defines crime as a sin that can be judged by human authority, and examines the sources of crime: ignorance, erroneous opinion, and passion. He discusses how ignorance of the law of nature never excuses, while ignorance of civil law may excuse in certain circumstances, and analyzes the degrees of crime based on the malignity of the cause, contagion of example, mischief of effect, and circumstances of time, place, and person.
Chapter 32
Of Punishments and Rewards
Hobbes defines punishment as an evil inflicted by public authority for a transgression of the law, intended to dispose men to obedience. He argues that the sovereign's right to punish is not granted by subjects but is retained from the state of nature, where each had a right to all things for self-preservation. He distinguishes punishment from private revenge, hostile acts, and mere neglect, and discusses various forms such as ignominy, imprisonment, and exile, emphasizing that punishment of the innocent violates natural law.
Chapter 33
Of Those Things That Weaken, or Tend to the Dissolution of a Commonwealth
Hobbes identifies doctrines and practices that undermine the commonwealth, including private judgment of good and evil, the belief that sovereign power can be divided, the influence of classical republican writings, and the conflict between civil and spiritual authority. He argues these lead to civil war and dissolution.
Chapter 34
Of the Office of the Sovereign Representative
This chapter defines the sovereign's office as securing the safety of the people, which includes not only preservation but also the lawful pursuit of life's contentments. The sovereign must maintain essential rights of sovereignty, prevent ignorance among subjects, and ensure proper instruction in duties and laws. It also discusses the sovereign's relationship with God, the law of nature, and the importance of teaching justice and obedience.
Chapter 35
Of the Kingdom of God by Nature
Hobbes distinguishes between the natural and prophetic kingdoms of God, grounding God's sovereignty not in creation or gratitude but in His irresistible power. He argues that natural laws and worship are dictated by reason, and that natural punishments follow from breaches of those laws. The chapter concludes with a reflection on the utility of his moral philosophy for sovereigns.
Chapter 36
Part III: Of a Christian Commonwealth
Hobbes examines the relationship between Christian doctrine and civil authority, arguing that sovereign power must govern religious interpretation to prevent civil discord, and that scripture supports absolute sovereignty.
Chapter 37
Of the Principles of Christian Politics
Hobbes transitions from natural principles to the foundations of Christian commonwealths, arguing that reason and Scripture are complementary, not contradictory. He examines how to discern true prophecy, emphasizing that miracles alone or doctrine alone are insufficient without both, and that obedience to sovereign authority is paramount even in matters of religious revelation.
Chapter 38
XXXIII: Of the Number, Antiquity, Scope, Authority, and Interpreters of the Books of Holy Scripture
Hobbes examines the authority and canon of the Holy Scriptures, arguing that they become law only through the sovereign's legislative power. He distinguishes between obedience to God and the human determination of what God has said, asserting that without supernatural revelation, subjects must rely on their sovereign to establish which books are canonical. He discusses the Old Testament canon, the Septuagint, the New Testament, and the question of who has the authority to interpret Scripture, ultimately reducing the issue to whether Christian sovereigns are absolute under God or subject to a universal vicar of Christ.
Chapter 39
XXXIV: Of the Signification of Spirit, Angel, and Inspiration in the Books of Holy Scripture
Hobbes examines the biblical meanings of 'body,' 'spirit,' 'angel,' and 'inspiration,' arguing that 'incorporeal substance' is a contradiction and that scriptural references to spirits and angels often denote material or metaphorical phenomena, not immaterial entities.
Chapter 40
Of the Signification in Scripture of Kingdom of God, of Holy, Sacred, and Sacrament
Hobbes argues that the 'Kingdom of God' in Scripture properly signifies a literal monarchy established by covenant between God and the people of Israel, not merely eternal felicity or sanctification. He traces this kingdom from Adam through Noah, Abraham, and Moses, emphasizing the covenant at Sinai. He then defines 'holy' as that which is God's by special propriety, and 'sacrament' as a visible sign of admission into or commemoration of God's kingdom, citing circumcision, baptism, the Passover, and the Lord's Supper.
Chapter 41
XXXVI: Of the Word of God, and of Prophets
Hobbes examines the multiple meanings of 'the Word of God' in Scripture, distinguishing between God's spoken words, His decrees, and the doctrine of Christian religion. He then discusses the nature of prophets, true and false, and concludes that the sovereign is God's vicegerent on earth, who must judge prophetic claims to maintain civil order.
Chapter 42
XXXVII: Of Miracles, and Their Use
Hobbes defines miracles as works done by the immediate hand of God, not by any virtue of the prophet or created spirit. He argues that apparent miracles performed by enchantment or magic are actually impostures and delusions exploiting human ignorance. He cautions against hasty belief in pretended miracles and insists that the sovereign (God's lieutenant) must be the judge of what constitutes a true miracle, especially in matters of public confession.
Chapter 43
XXXVIII: Of the Signification in Scripture of Eternal Life, Hell, Salvation, the World to Come, and Redemption
This chapter examines the scriptural meanings of eternal life, hell, salvation, the world to come, and redemption. Hobbes argues that eternal life and eternal torment are the ultimate rewards and punishments that underpin civil society, and that these concepts must be understood through Scripture. He contends that Adam's sin brought mortality, and Christ's sacrifice restores eternal life to believers on earth. Hell is described not as a specific location but as a state of destruction or punishment, often symbolized by earthly examples like the fates of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, the giants of Noah's time, and the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. Salvation presupposes redemption, which is achieved through Christ's sacrifice, not as a commercial transaction but as a merciful act of God. Hobbes concludes that such doctrines are ultimately subject to the sovereign's authority.
Chapter 44
Of the Signification in Scripture of the Word Church
Hobbes examines the various meanings of the word 'Church' in Scripture, distinguishing between its use for a physical building, a lawful assembly, the whole multitude of Christians, and a particular congregation. He defines a Church as a company of men professing Christian religion, united under one civil sovereign, and argues that there is no universal Church on earth with authority over all Christians. He concludes that temporal and spiritual government are inseparable, and that the civil sovereign is the chief pastor.
Chapter 45
XL: Of the Rights of the Kingdom of God, in Abraham, Moses, the High Priests, and the Kings of Judah
This chapter examines the rights of God's kingdom as established through Abraham, Moses, the high priests, and the kings of Judah. Hobbes argues that Abraham's covenant with God established a model where the sovereign (like Abraham) interprets God's word and commands obedience in external religious acts. The covenant was renewed with Isaac, Jacob, and later through Moses at Sinai, where Moses acted as God's lieutenant. After the Israelites demanded a king, the civil and religious authority became united in the king, as seen in examples like Solomon and Josiah. Hobbes concludes that in the Old Testament, the sovereign always held supreme authority over both civil and religious matters, representing God's person.
Chapter 46
Of the Office of Our Blessed Saviour
Hobbes delineates the threefold office of the Messiah as Redeemer, Prophet/Teacher, and King, corresponding to His first coming, the present age of conversion, and His future eternal reign. He explains that Christ's sacrificial death and resurrection fulfill the typology of the scapegoat and sacrificed goat, and that His kingdom is not of this world but will commence at the general resurrection. Hobbes argues that Christ's earthly ministry did not subvert civil authority, as He taught obedience to existing magistrates and paid tribute to Caesar, and that His kingdom is spiritual and eschatological.
Chapter 47
Of Power Ecclesiastical
Hobbes examines the claim that the Pope holds supreme spiritual authority over civil sovereigns, arguing that such a division of power is incoherent and dangerous. He contends that all power, including ecclesiastical, ultimately resides in the civil sovereign, and that the Pope's asserted 'indirect' power is as absolute and threatening as direct power. Through a critique of Cardinal Bellarmine's arguments, Hobbes defends the absolute sovereignty of the civil ruler in both temporal and spiritual matters.
Chapter 48
XLIII: Of What Is Necessary for a Man’s Reception Into the Kingdom of Heaven
Hobbes resolves the apparent conflict between obedience to God and obedience to the civil sovereign by distinguishing what is necessary for salvation. He argues that only faith in Christ (that Jesus is the Christ) and obedience to the laws of Nature (which are the laws of God) are required. Since the civil sovereign is the supreme interpreter of Scripture and maker of civil law, there can be no contradiction between divine and civil commands. Subjects must obey their sovereign unless commanded to deny Christ, in which case they may accept martyrdom. Hobbes concludes by affirming the power of civil sovereigns and the duty of subjects, grounding his argument in Scripture interpreted according to its overall scope.
Chapter 49
Part IV: Of the Kingdom of Darkness
Hobbes defines the Kingdom of Darkness as a confederacy of deceivers that, through false doctrines and misinterpretations of Scripture, obscure the true law of nature and civil authority, leading men away from the light of reason and the sovereign's rule.
Chapter 50
Of Spiritual Darkness, from Misinterpretation of Scripture
Hobbes argues that the kingdom of darkness is a confederacy of deceivers who use erroneous doctrines to extinguish the light of nature and the Gospel. He identifies four main sources of spiritual error: abuse of Scripture, heathen demonology, Greek philosophy (especially Aristotle), and false traditions. The greatest abuse is interpreting the kingdom of God as the present Church, which leads to claims of papal supremacy, clerical exemptions, double taxation, and the confusion of civil and canon law. He also condemns the turning of consecration into conjuration or enchantment.
Chapter 51
Of Demonology, and Other Relics of the Religion of the Gentiles
Hobbes examines the distinction between civil and divine worship, arguing that idolatry consists in worshipping finite objects as gods without divine authority. He traces the origins of many Christian ceremonies—such as processions, holy water, candles, and holy days—to the religious practices of the ancient Greeks and Romans, and discusses the historical role of the Pontifex Maximus in regulating religion.
Chapter 52
XLVI: Of Darkness from Vain Philosophy and Fabulous Traditions
Hobbes critiques vain philosophy, particularly Aristotelian 'separated essences,' for fostering superstitions like ghosts and transubstantiation, which undermine civil obedience. He defines true philosophy as reasoning from causes to effects, distinguishes it from prudence and revelation, and traces its historical rise in commonwealths. He condemns errors in civil philosophy, such as tyranny doctrines, inquisition of conscience, and clerical monopolies on teaching, which threaten sovereign authority.
Chapter 53
Of the Benefit That Proceedeth from Such Darkness, and to Whom It Accrueth
Hobbes applies the principle of 'cui bono' (who benefits) to identify the authors of spiritual darkness in Christendom. He argues that the doctrine that the Church on earth is the Kingdom of Christ primarily benefits the Pope and Roman clergy by establishing an unlawful universal monarchy over Christian sovereigns. He also implicates the presbyterian clergy for retaining this doctrine after rejecting papal authority. Hobbes traces the historical accumulation of ecclesiastical power through three knots—presbyterial assemblies, episcopal authority, and papal supremacy—and describes their dissolution in England under Queen Elizabeth and the presbyterians.
Chapter 54
A Review, and Conclusion
Hobbes concludes his discourse by emphasizing the mutual relation between protection and obedience, warning against the dangers of justifying conquest by right rather than possession, and clarifying the nature of conquest and submission. He revisits the commonwealth of the Jews, the role of Moses, and the proper execution of capital punishment, arguing against private zeal and for sovereign command. He also discusses the conditions under which a subject may lawfully submit to a conqueror, defining conquest as the acquisition of sovereignty by victory through the people's submission.
Chapter 55
List of Illustrations
A table listing the several subjects of science covered in the work.
