Last and First Men · Chapters
Chapters explained
Chapter companions for Last and First Men by Olaf Stapledon.
Chapter 1
Last and First Men
The opening chapter of 'Last and First Men' introduces the grand scope of the narrative, which spans the entire future history of humanity. It sets the stage for a story that will cover the rise and fall of many distinct human species over millions of years, from the First Men to the Last Men, and touches on themes of cosmic time, evolution, and the ultimate fate of the human race.
Chapter 2
I: Balkan Europe
The chapter opens with the Last Men observing the First Men's epoch, focusing on the European War and its aftermath. It discusses the ideals of Socrates and Jesus, the failure of these ideals, the rise of tribalism, and the cultural differences among nations, particularly France, England, Germany, and Russia. The chapter highlights the emergence of cosmopolitanism and the need for integration of Western intellectual detachment and Eastern mystical intuition, which ultimately fails, leading to racial insanity.
Chapter 3
The European War and After
The chapter reflects on the European War as seen from the distant future of the Last Men, portraying it as a pivotal moment in the early history of the First Men. It discusses the ideals of Socrates and Jesus, the conflict between Fate and Life, and the failure of humanity to cope with its own nature, leading to the war and the flawed peace that followed.
Chapter 4
II: The Anglo-French War
This chapter describes a brief but tragic conflict between England and France that occurs within a century after the European War. England, in a moment of cosmopolitan idealism, sends a peace message to France, but an accidental bombing kills a popular princess, inflaming public opinion and leading to war. The chapter also recounts a prior conflict between France and Italy, and reflects on how these events, driven by accidents and lack of vision, sealed the fate of the First Men and led to a dark age.
Chapter 5
III: Europe After the Anglo-French War
This chapter examines the subtle but profound shift in the global mental climate following the Anglo-French War. It argues that while the war seemed a petty disturbance to outsiders, it irreparably damaged the cultural and intellectual leadership of England and France, which had been the chief proponents of sceptical, dispassionate intelligence. The chapter contrasts the French and English temperaments with the romantic and systematic German mind, and the intuitive, mystical Russian nature, highlighting the need for a synthesis of Western intellectual detachment and Eastern ecstasy. It also notes the rise of a cosmopolitan 'nation' of awakened minds and the tragic failure to integrate these diverse cultural forces, leading to racial insanity.
Chapter 6
IV: The Russo-German War
The chapter details the causes and consequences of the Russo-German War, a conflict driven by economic competition, ideological tension, and a provocative book. The war results in devastating poison gas attacks, widespread environmental and human damage, and the unification of Europe against America, while also leading to a deterioration of European mentality and the wrecking of Russian cultural synthesis.
Chapter 7
II: Europe's Downfall
The chapter recounts the destruction of a Chinese scientist's weapon, the subsequent annihilation of the American air fleet, and the descent into war between Europe and America, leading to Europe's downfall and America's moral decay.
Chapter 8
I: Europe and America
The chapter contrasts the ancient, refined culture of Europe with the youthful, self-confident United States, which dominates the world through its products and media. America's influence, though powerful, spreads only its most vulgar traits, corrupting global culture. Despite its potential, America's complacency and lack of self-criticism lead it into a destructive war with Europe, triggered by a series of incidents.
Chapter 9
II: The Origins of a Mystery
An international society of scientists meets in England to witness a young Chinese physicist's demonstration of a weapon that can annihilate matter. The weapon is tested on Lundy Island, destroying it. The scientists debate the weapon's use, with the Frenchman arguing against it, the German for it. Ultimately, they vote to destroy the weapon, but when an American air fleet approaches, the young physicist uses it to destroy the fleet. He then burns his instrument and manuscript and kills himself, fearing his knowledge is too dangerous for humanity.
Chapter 10
III: Europe Murdered
The chapter describes the aftermath of a mysterious explosion that annihilates the American fleet, leading to a European attempt to secure the secret. The Americans, enraged, launch a genocidal gas attack on Europe, wiping out its population. The victors are left with a profound sense of guilt, which warps their national psyche. The chapter also details the disintegration of the British Empire and the futile resistance of New Zealanders.
Chapter 11
America and China
This chapter explores the cultural and ideological clash between America and China in the distant future, highlighting their complementary yet flawed mentalities, the economic and sentimental causes of their conflict, and the secret peace negotiations on a Pacific island. It also critiques the loss of critical intelligence and the rise of degenerate belief systems.
Chapter 12
The Rivals
After the eclipse of Europe, the world crystallizes into two great rival blocs: the American and the Chinese. The chapter details the gradual absorption of other nations into these two spheres, the failure of the League of Nations to maintain cosmopolitan unity, and the deep cultural and philosophical differences between the American and Chinese mentalities. It highlights the American spirit of restless activity and materialistic faith, contrasted with the Chinese and Indian preference for contemplation and peace, and notes the fatal lack of a critical, truth-seeking intelligence in both, which ultimately leads to disaster.
Chapter 13
The Conflict
After the Euro-American War, a century of minor conflicts and strained peace led to a major war between America and China over Antarctic fuel resources and moral disagreements. The war, fought with advanced biological and chemical weapons, lasted twenty-five years, devastating Europe and Japan, and creating a deep ideological rift between the two superpowers. Despite official propaganda, war-weariness and peace movements grew, but governments, dependent on war, suppressed them.
Chapter 14
On an Island in the Pacific
In the twenty-sixth year of a devastating world war, an American and a Chinese envoy meet secretly on a Pacific island to negotiate a peace that will lead to the creation of a World Finance Directorate. Their business-like discussion is interrupted by the appearance of a mysterious, nude young woman, whose presence exposes deep cultural and personal tensions between the two men. The American is offended by her nudity, while the Chinese is charmed. The woman reveals her mixed heritage and her longing for a world beyond her island. The negotiations proceed, but the encounter leaves a lasting impact, culminating in the signing of a treaty witnessed by the woman, who then departs with the American.
Chapter 15
IV: An Americanized Planet
This chapter describes the final phase of the first world civilization, characterized by a global culture of ritualistic flying, worship of Gordelpus, and a decline in intelligence. The society, though prosperous and unified, is spiritually empty and intellectually repressed. The sudden exhaustion of coal supplies triggers a crisis, leading to economic hardship and a psychological breakdown. The scientists, unable to solve the crisis, resort to fraudulent miracles to maintain control, while the populace clings to faith and ritual. The chapter ends with the world on the brink of collapse, still devoted to its doomed way of life.
Chapter 16
I: The Foundation of the First World State
This chapter describes the establishment of the First World State, achieved about 380 years after the European War, through the coordinated action of America and China. The new order is a guild socialism controlled by a World Industrial Council and a Financial Directorate. The President of the World, an American, faces a scandal involving his relationship with the 'Daughter of Man,' which he turns into a symbol of world unity. Meanwhile, China undergoes a period of 'American madness' and later develops a new religious synthesis called Energism, blending action and rest.
Chapter 17
II: The Dominance of Science
In this chapter, the narrator describes the unique position of science among the First Men, emphasizing its role in revolutionizing material circumstances and dominating the imagination of a race with waning intellectual curiosity. The narrative details the crystallization of scientific doctrine, the rise of legends such as the mystery of Gordelpus, and the eventual formal union of science and religion through the founding of the Sacred Order of Scientists, which becomes the dominant force until the downfall of the first world civilization.
Chapter 18
III: Material Achievement
This chapter describes the material achievements of the First World State, a period of about four thousand years when humanity was a single social unit. It details the urbanization of all continents, the development of aerial communication and architecture, and the use of power sources such as coal, wind, and geothermal energy. The chapter also highlights advances in preventive medicine that eliminated many diseases and improved human well-being, while noting the eventual exhaustion of essential power sources leading to the collapse of this civilization.
Chapter 19
IV: The Culture of the First World State
This chapter describes the culture of the First World State, a civilization that achieved unprecedented material prosperity and technological advancement, yet suffered from a decline in intelligence and a spiritual emptiness. The society is ruled by the fanatical worship of movement, embodied in the deity Gordelpus, and is characterized by a barren complacency. The chapter explores the religious practices, including sacred flying and dancing, and the peculiar status of the Negro race as a sacred caste. It also mentions two heresies: a phallic cult and the ultimate Socratics, who sought intellectual truth through definition.
Chapter 20
V: Downfall
The collapse of the first world-civilization is precipitated by the exhaustion of coal supplies, leading to a desperate adherence to ritualistic flight and the false divine secret of Gordelpus. As resources dwindle, the populace's faith wavers, scientists fail to find solutions, and civil unrest escalates into global catastrophe, culminating in the spread of the 'American Madness' and the near-total destruction of civilization.
Chapter 21
V: The Fall of the First Men
This chapter covers the decline and fall of the First Men, beginning with the First Dark Age after the collapse of the World State. It describes the causes of the prolonged degradation, including a biological 'senescence' and the loss of vitality. The narrative then focuses on the Patagonian civilization, which arises after the dark age. A 'Divine Boy' prophet emerges, preaching a gospel of youth and rejuvenation, but his later, more mature message is misunderstood. His cult leads to a brief golden age, but the race eventually reverts to its middle-aged state. The chapter ends with the Patagonians discovering the ruins of the previous civilization, setting the stage for a catastrophe.
Chapter 22
I: The First Dark Age
This chapter describes the period following the fall of the First World State, known as the First Dark Age, which lasted about one hundred and fifteen thousand years. Man's civilization collapsed into savagery and barbarism, with only a tenth of the population surviving. The causes included an epidemic of insanity from microbes, a general senescence of the species, and the loss of technology and mineral resources. The people regressed to stone tools, lived in constant fear of the gods, and were obsessed with legends of a glorious past and the downfall of mighty fliers. The ruins of the old civilization remained as monuments, and the Swastika symbol was reinterpreted as a sign of divine ancestry and decline.
Chapter 23
II: The Rise of Patagonia
This chapter describes the rise of the Patagonian civilization in South America after the First Dark Age. It details how the Patagonians, a people with subdued sexuality and reduced vitality, developed a stable and progressive culture. Their civilization, centered in the new lands connecting America to Antarctica, was characterized by peace, organization, and a tradition of human unity. However, they were hampered by premature aging, which limited their youthful vigor and cultural creativity, leading to a civilization that, while steady, was less dramatic and less innovative than earlier ones.
Chapter 24
III: The Cult of Youth
This chapter explores the Patagonians' unique spiritual evolution, focusing on their cult of the Divine Boy, a god-man who epitomizes eternal youth. The cult reflects their racial senescence and arrested growth, as they yearn for youth but fail to mature. The prophet, initially a leader of a youth movement, later delivers a mature gospel urging the Patagonians to 'grow up' and embrace life as a serious game, challenging their worship of a vindictive Creator.
Chapter 25
IV: The Catastrophe
The Patagonians, a later human species, discover the remnants of a previous advanced civilization, which shatters their self-image as pioneers. They learn of the ancient World State's brilliance and madness, leading to a cultural and political split. The progressive faction wins, and industrialism is reintroduced, but it brings social discord and a class divide. Obsessed with regaining lost power, they rediscover atomic energy, but a worker rebellion leads to a catastrophic explosion that destroys nearly all life on Earth, leaving only thirty-five survivors near the North Pole.
Chapter 26
VI: Transition
This chapter describes the aftermath of the Great Catastrophe, focusing on the survival of a small group of Patagonians who become the sole trustees of the human spirit. It details their struggle to maintain civilization in a devastated world, the division of their community into two factions, and the eventual emergence of two distinct human species. The narrative also covers the long-term decline of the Siberian settlement into a Second Dark Age, while preserving a sacred loyalty to the future and the stone library.
Chapter 27
I: The First Men at Bay
After a global catastrophe, a small group of survivors, the last of the First Men, struggle to preserve humanity. They establish a settlement in Siberia, facing disease, environmental hardship, and internal conflict. A schism divides them into two groups, one staying behind and one sailing away, leading to the eventual degeneration of the wanderers and the slow decline of the settlement's intellectual vigor, yet they maintain a sacred loyalty to the future and the preservation of their culture.
Chapter 28
II: The Second Dark Age
This chapter describes the aftermath of the Patagonian disaster, a period of geological and biological recovery lasting millions of years. It details the transformation of Earth's continents and climate, the emergence of new species, and the fate of the two surviving human settlements. The Asian group, isolated on an island, degenerates into a primitive, non-innovative but emotionally refined society, while the Labrador group sinks into animality. The chapter sets the stage for the eventual recovery of humanity through the absorption of new chemicals and the mixing of races.
Chapter 29
VII: The Rise of the Second Men
This chapter details the emergence and evolution of the Second Men, a new human species that arose millions of years after the Patagonian disaster. It describes their physical and psychological characteristics, their development of a world-community, and their pursuit of a more perfect and long-lived form of humanity. The chapter also touches on their unique sexual morality, their telepathic aspirations, and the looming, incomprehensible threat from other life in the solar system.
Chapter 30
I: The Appearance of a New Species
This chapter describes the emergence of the Second Men, a new human species that appeared ten million years after the Patagonian disaster. It details their physical and psychological improvements over the First Men, including greater stature, enhanced vision, superior cognitive abilities, and a more altruistic and cosmopolitan nature. However, it also notes their lack of self-regard as a motive, which slows their progress.
Chapter 31
II: The Intercourse of Three Species
The Second Men, having spread across Asia, encounter two other species in Africa: the subhuman descendants of an ancient ship's crew and a race of intelligent monkeys. The monkeys have enslaved the subhumans, and despite initial peaceful contact, they annihilate the Second Men's expedition. Later, the monkeys use infected nuts to spread plagues among the Second Men, causing a catastrophic collapse of their civilization. Eventually, the monkeys' obsession with metal leads to their downfall, as the subhumans rebel and destroy them.
Chapter 32
III: The Zenith of the Second Men
This chapter describes the rise and zenith of the Second Men, a species that surpassed the First Men in intellect and longevity. They discovered the remains of the First Men's stone library in Siberia, which provided historical insight but also a sacred text that resonated with their own intuitions. The Second Men achieved a world-community and sought to remake themselves into a nobler pattern, but were oppressed by the brevity of life and a craving for spiritual union. Their sexual morality evolved into novel forms, including group marriages. However, they faced natural disasters, including a glacial epoch, plagues, and a dangerous overgrowth of the brain, until a stable variety emerged in North America. The chapter ends with the Second Men at their zenith, having established a worldwide but 'medieval' society without mechanical power.
Chapter 33
VIII: The Martians
This chapter delves into the history and psychology of the Martians, explaining their motivations and the internal contradictions that led to their downfall. It describes their evolution into a single, unified species with a collective mind, their obsessive veneration of radiation and rigid materials like diamonds, and the resulting delusions that drove their invasion of Earth. The chapter contrasts the Martian collective psyche with human individuality, highlighting their lack of love, diversity, and true self-criticism, and suggests that their public mind, while powerful, was ultimately inferior and rigid.
Chapter 34
I: The First Martian Invasion
The chapter describes the first Martian invasion of Earth, beginning with the appearance of greenish cloudlets in the sky over the Hindu Kush. These cloudlets, revealed to be living organisms, descend onto a mountain and form a dark, seething mass that moves down a valley, engulfing a village and killing several people. The cloud is eventually dispersed by beam radiation, ending the first invasion.
Chapter 35
Life on Mars
This chapter provides a detailed account of the physical conditions and biological evolution of Mars, contrasting them with Earth's. It describes the emergence of a unique form of life based on subvital units that communicate via radiation rather than material contact, leading to the development of cloudlet-like organisms and eventually a planetary group-mind. The chapter emphasizes the alien yet fundamentally similar nature of Martian life, setting the stage for their interaction with humanity.
Chapter 36
III: The Martian Mind
This chapter explores the psychological and physiological nature of the Martians, contrasting their collective mind and unique biology with human individuality. It details their instinctive drives, their advanced scientific knowledge, and their profound lack of spiritual or philosophical insight, setting the stage for their invasion of Earth.
Chapter 37
Delusions of the Martians
This chapter explores the psychological and cultural history of the Martians, explaining how their unique radiational abilities led to a species-wide delusion. Their victory in ancient racial wars created a scar on their conscience, which they rationalized into a belief in their own sacred superiority. This belief evolved into a fanatical obsession with radiation and rigid materials, especially diamonds, which they revered as embodiments of cosmic equilibrium. The chapter details how this obsession, combined with a rigid public consciousness that suppressed private thought, ultimately crippled their spiritual and intellectual development, setting the stage for their conflict with humanity.
Chapter 38
Earth and Mars
The chapter explores the spiritual and psychological decline of the Second Men after centuries of Martian raids, leading to a loss of faith in cosmic significance and a descent into madness and nationalism. Meanwhile, the Martian colony undergoes a spiritual renaissance, distinguishing mentality from radiation, but is ultimately destroyed by the home planet. Humanity, in a final desperate act, unleashes a deadly virus that annihilates both the Martian colony and most of humanity, plunging the Earth into a third dark age.
Chapter 39
I: The Second Men at Bay
The Second Men, a highly evolved human species, face a series of Martian invasions. Despite their advanced civilization and initial victories, they suffer devastating physiological and psychological consequences from the Martian subvital units, leading to a gradual decline. The Martians, driven by economic and religious motives, repeatedly attack, and the Second Men struggle to understand and counter an enemy they cannot comprehend.
Chapter 40
II: The Ruin of Two Worlds
The chapter describes the spiritual decline of the Second Men after centuries of war with the Martians. Their failure to achieve a supreme religious experience leads to a loss of faith and vitality, resulting in social decay and madness. When the Martians launch a final offensive, humanity unites briefly but then resorts to a deadly virus that annihilates both species. The chapter ends with the Second Men's apathy and the collapse of civilization.
Chapter 41
III: The Third Dark Age
After the devastating Martian bacterium nearly exterminates humanity, a small remnant of the Second Men survives, but falls into a prolonged spiritual and cultural stagnation. Over millions of years, they regress to a simple, indolent existence, losing civilization, speech, and ambition, while the planet undergoes geological and biological changes, including the symbiotic integration of Martian subvital units into terrestrial life.
Chapter 42
X: The Third Men in the Wilderness
This chapter describes the rise and nature of the Third Men, a new human species that emerged after the Second Men's long racial trance. They are shorter, lithe, with golden eyes and large expressive ears, and have a short lifespan, often choosing suicide over decrepitude. Their culture is marked by a deep interest in music and a recurring obsession with biological control and sadism, leading to various cultural digressions, including industrial and musical civilizations. The chapter explores their religious and philosophical tendencies, particularly their worship of Life as a spirit and their complex attitudes toward pain and suffering.
Chapter 43
I: The Third Human Species
This chapter describes the rise of the Third Men, a new human species that evolved from the Second Men after a period of isolation and environmental change. The Third Men are characterized by their physical traits, such as six-fingered hands and expressive ears, and their unique mental and cultural characteristics, including a focus on sensory experience, music, and the manipulation of living things. Their civilization is marked by a complex relationship with life, involving both reverence and cruelty, and a conflict between tenderheartedness and the desire to create through manipulation.
Chapter 44
II: Digressions of the Third Men
This chapter explores the various cultural and intellectual digressions of the Third Men, a species that repeatedly pursued biological creativity and sadism. It details several non-industrial civilizations, including a musical culture that became a religious tyranny, and other cultures obsessed with flight, metabolism, and eugenics. The chapter highlights the Third Men's tendency to be led astray by their own interests, ultimately leading to their downfall and the rise of a new form.
Chapter 45
III: The Vital Art
This chapter describes the civilization of the Third Men, which reached its peak after a long period of development. Their culture is characterized by a dominant interest in living things, leading to the creation of 'plastic vital art'—the deliberate breeding and modification of organisms. This art is practiced with religious fervor, guided by two opposing sects: one seeking harmonious perfection and the other producing monsters. The chapter details the principles of this art, the societal structure, and the relationship between humans and animals, including sacred gladiatorial contests.
Chapter 46
IV: Conflicting Policies
The Third Men, having achieved a stable and biologically advanced society, begin to debate the future direction of human evolution. Orthodox opinion favors gradual improvement of the existing human form, while a second party advocates breeding specialized mediums to communicate with the afterlife, and a third, more radical faction proposes the creation of a being purely dedicated to intelligence. The governing caste opposes the latter, but a secret group within it decides to pursue the project clandestinely.
Chapter 47
Man Remakes Himself
The chapter details the creation of the first Great Brain, a super-intellect formed by the Third Men, and its subsequent rule. It then describes the Great Brain's decision to create the Fourth Men, a new species designed with enhanced mental and sensory capabilities, including telepathy, and the long process of designing and perfecting this new human type.
Chapter 48
I: The First of the Great Brains
This chapter describes the creation of the first true individual of the Fourth Men, a super-brain produced through artificial means. After centuries of failed experiments, a being with a massive brain and artificial organs is created, but it succumbs to insanity and death. Later, a more successful version is produced, which becomes an autocrat and uses its immense intellect to govern and explore the universe, though it lacks normal human emotions.
Chapter 49
II: The Tragedy of the Fourth Men
The Fourth Men, a species of Great Brains, created through artificial means, pursue pure intellection but face frustration and a growing sense of meaninglessness. Their inability to appreciate natural values leads to a crisis with their menial Third Men servants, culminating in a rebellion that threatens their existence. The Fourth Men secretly develop a method of control using a hereditary caste of communicants, but the tragedy lies in their one-sided nature and the failure of their quest for knowledge.
Chapter 50
III: The Fifth Men
The Fourth Men, the Great Brains, design and create a new human species, the Fifth Men, with enhanced physical and mental capabilities. The chapter details the extensive planning and experimentation involved, the physical and psychological attributes of the new species, and foreshadows the conflict that will arise between the Fifth Men and their creators.
Chapter 51
IV: The Culture of the Fifth Men
This chapter describes the advanced civilization and culture of the Fifth Men, focusing on their material abundance, telepathic communication, and the nature of their artistic and scientific pursuits. The Fifth Men have achieved a world-society with unlimited power and automation, freeing individuals for higher mental activities. Their culture is characterized by a unique form of telepathy that enriches individual minds, and their art and science are deeply intertwined, with a focus on aesthetic unity and the exploration of time. The chapter also notes the spiral development of their culture over millions of years.
Chapter 52
The Last Terrestrials
The Fifth Men, long-lived but mortal, grapple with the tragedy of death and the evanescence of all things. They discover that past events persist eternally, leading to a profound social melancholy. A sudden crisis with the moon's orbit threatens their existence, prompting a shift from past-focused despair to present and future concerns.
Chapter 53
I: The Cult of Evanescence
The Fifth Men, though long-lived, are mortal and develop a culture centered on the beauty of evanescence. They reject immortality, embracing death as a source of aesthetic and spiritual value. A conflict arises between orthodox believers in evanescence and iconoclasts who suspect the past may have eternal existence, leading to a crisis that is resolved by allowing research to proceed.
Chapter 54
Exploration of Time
The Fifth Men develop a technique for directly inspecting the past through trance-like states, using specially bred and trained individuals as 'mediums.' Early attempts are dangerous and often fatal, but eventually the process is perfected, allowing explorers to experience past events through the minds of deceased organisms. This new ability profoundly affects their culture, giving them an intimate and vivid knowledge of history, but also causing despair as they confront the eternal persistence of past suffering.
Chapter 55
III: Voyaging in Space
The Fifth Men, grappling with a profound social melancholy, are confronted by a startling physical crisis: the moon's orbit is inexplicably shrinking, threatening eventual disintegration and catastrophe. Faced with the impossibility of remaining on Earth, they turn their scientific and cultural ingenuity toward space exploration, devising ether-ships powered by matter annihilation. Their goal becomes the colonization of Venus, a hostile world requiring massive terraforming efforts, including electrolysis of its oceans and the introduction of engineered vegetation. This chapter explores the tension between love for their native planet and the necessity of leaving it, as well as the immense challenges of adapting to a new world.
Chapter 56
IV: Preparing a New World
As the moon's approach spells doom for Earth, humanity prepares to migrate to Venus. The chapter details the logistical and moral challenges of this exodus, including the discovery of intelligent Venerian life, the ethical dilemma of displacing and ultimately exterminating the native species, and the psychological impact of this necessary but terrible act on the Fifth Men.
Chapter 57
Humanity on Venus
The chapter describes humanity's migration to Venus and the long, difficult process of adapting to the new planet. The initial settlers face harsh conditions, including extreme weather, atmospheric explosions, and plagues, leading to a decline in intelligence and culture. Over millions of years, humanity evolves into new species, including the seal-like submen and the aerial Seventh Men, who develop a unique, flight-based civilization. The chapter ends with the Seventh Men's culture enduring for a hundred million years, though it is ultimately undermined by biological instability and the loss of ancient knowledge.
Chapter 58
I: Taking Root Again
The chapter describes the long sojourn of humanity on Venus after the evacuation of Earth. The initial settlers struggle with a hostile climate, atmospheric explosions, and plagues, including a mysterious digestive disease and a nervous system cancer caused by Martian units. Human culture and intelligence decline, leading to the burning of books and a superstition against science. Over millions of years, the fifth human species degenerates, giving rise to the seal-like submen and the Sixth Men. Eventually, geological events create a large island, leading to a new and versatile race and a repetition of Earth's cultural cycles. The chapter ends with a reflection on how humanity's brief spirits are mostly concerned with primitive needs, with only rare moments of deeper insight.
Chapter 59
II: The Flying Men
The chapter describes the final phase of the Sixth Men, who, obsessed with flight, created the Seventh Men, a species of winged humanoids. These flying men lived carefree lives but were eventually subjugated by flightless intellectuals, leading to a tragic mass suicide.
Chapter 60
III: A Minor Astronomical Event
The Eighth Men, a new human species, build a technologically advanced civilization on Venus. They discover that the sun will soon become a white dwarf, prompting plans to migrate to Mercury. However, a new astronomical discovery reveals that a non-luminous gas cloud will collide with the sun, making Venus uninhabitable. The Eighth Men then focus on colonizing Neptune, creating the Ninth Men for this purpose. After establishing the colony, the dark stranger collides with Saturn and disrupts the solar system, leaving the sun transformed.
Chapter 61
XIV: Neptune
The narrator shifts to a high-altitude perspective, covering the vast Neptunian epoch of human history. He describes the initial failure of the Ninth Men, who were ill-adapted to Neptune's harsh environment and degenerated into subhuman forms. Over hundreds of millions of years, life slowly re-emerged, and eventually the Fifteenth Men arose, making steady progress and creating the Sixteenth Men, who achieved telepathy and began to contemplate the liberation of the past.
Chapter 62
I: Bird’s-Eye View
The narrator, one of the Last Men, provides a cosmic overview of human history, spanning from the First Men to the Last Men on Neptune. He emphasizes the vastness of time and space, contrasting humanity's brief existence with the immense age of the cosmos. The chapter outlines the three great epochs of man's Neptunian history: the initial struggle and near-extinction, the gradual reawakening of the human spirit, and the final steady progress toward spiritual maturity.
Chapter 63
II: Da Capo
The chapter describes the fate of the Ninth Men, a dwarf species created by the Venerians to colonize Neptune, but which proved ill-adapted to the planet's harsh conditions and eventually devolved into subhuman forms. Over hundreds of millions of years, these descendants evolved into a new species, the Tenth Men, who developed a new kind of hand and mind, marking a fresh start for humanity.
Chapter 64
III: Slow Conquest
The chapter traces the slow and gradual evolution of humanity on Neptune, from the primitive Tenth Men through the Fourteenth, Fifteenth, and Sixteenth species, culminating in the Last Men. It describes the cultural and biological progress, the abolition of five great evils by the Fifteenth Men, the creation of the Sixteenth Men with telepathy and improved senses, and their eventual quest to create a higher human type, leading to the Seventeenth and Eighteenth (Last) species. The narrative emphasizes the immense timescales, the recurring cycles of civilization and decline, and the persistent philosophical problems of time, mind, and the meaning of existence.
Chapter 65
XV: The Last Men
This chapter introduces the Last Men, the final human species, describing their physical form, spiritual culture, and unique racial consciousness. It explores their relationship with the cosmos, their acceptance of fate, and their supreme goal of realizing the cosmic ideal. The chapter contrasts their advanced state with earlier human species and details their society, which is dominated by a single racial purpose.
Chapter 66
Introduction to the Last Human Species
The narrator introduces the Last Men, the final human species on Neptune, contrasting their physical and spiritual evolution with the First Men. The chapter describes their varied bodies, sub-sexes, and advanced culture, including their great architectural pylons, flight, and food production. It also recounts the return of an exploration ship whose crew was driven mad by the emptiness of space, highlighting the Last Men's unique relationship with the cosmos and their psychological dependence on communal sanity.
Chapter 67
II: Childhood and Maturity
The narrator describes the domestic and social life of the Last Men, focusing on their unique childhood and maturation process. Children are born after a twenty-year gestation, cared for by their mothers for a century, then spend centuries in childhood and a thousand years of adolescence, much of it in the Land of the Young, a preserved wilderness where they live a primitive, tribal life. The chapter contrasts this with the adult world of philosophical maturity, and explains the community's policy of producing new individuals of higher type, leading to voluntary retirement of older adults. It also details the simplicity of adult homes, the use of telepathic books, and the rarity of children due to near-immortality.
Chapter 68
III: A Racial Awakening
The narrator describes the unique social and mental organization of the Last Men, centered on the sexual group as the basis of a super-individual group-mind. This group-mind, achieved through telepathic unity, enables a racial consciousness that transcends individual experience. The chapter explores the nature of this group-mind, its role in shaping a religious racial purpose, and the society's anarchic yet harmonious structure, culminating in an attempt to convey the modern vision of existence that guides their collective striving.
Chapter 69
IV: Cosmology
The Last Men reflect on the cosmos as a finite yet boundless order of events, contemplating the cyclic nature of time, the inevitability of the cosmic End, and the possibility of a supreme awakening that would gather all spirits into eternal beatitude. They confront the tragedy of countless suffering beings and the uncertainty of whether the cosmic ideal will ever be fulfilled, while maintaining a stance of ecstatic acceptance toward fate.
Chapter 70
XVI: The Last of Man
The Last Men, facing the imminent destruction of their world by a violet star, prepare for the end. They reflect on their philosophical age and the task of preserving humanity through a seed, but accept their fate with a spirit of tragic beauty and loyalty to life.
Chapter 71
I: Sentence of Death
The chapter opens with the narrator reflecting on the philosophical age of the Last Men and their long-term plans to preserve humanity through the solar system's eventual collapse. However, a sudden astronomical discovery—a nearby star undergoing a rapid and unprecedented transformation—threatens to bring about a swift and catastrophic end. The star's violet brilliance and high-frequency radiation portend the infection and destruction of the sun, making life impossible within thirty thousand years. The chapter establishes the impending doom that frames the entire narrative.
Chapter 72
II: Behaviour of the Condemned
The Last Men confront the imminent solar catastrophe with serene acceptance, transforming grief into ecstatic contemplation. They undertake two tasks: disseminating seeds of a new humanity across the stars and influencing past minds through a newly discovered power, all while maintaining a stoic commitment to their final duty.
Chapter 73
III: Epilogue
The Last Men, in the twilight of their existence, face the sun's catastrophic disintegration. Their civilization has crumbled under the onslaught of solar radiation, leading to physical and spiritual decay. The narrator describes the loss of their higher faculties, the breakdown of society, and the emergence of the Brotherhood of the Condemned, a group dedicated to maintaining the human spirit until the end. The chapter closes with the words of the youngest and noblest of the Last Men, who offers a perspective of quiet acceptance and the enduring beauty of man's achievement.
Chapter 74
List of Illustrations
This chapter is a list of illustrations, specifically five timescales that chart the history of the world from 2,000 years ago to 5,000,000,000,000 years in the future, providing a visual framework for the vast temporal scope of the narrative.
