Histories · Chapters
Chapters explained
Chapter companions for Histories by Herodotus.
Chapter 1
Histories
Herodotus introduces his inquiry into the causes of the Greco-Persian Wars, tracing the origins of conflict between Greeks and barbarians through mythical abductions and historical grievances, and outlining the rise of the Persian Empire under Cyrus and his successors.
Chapter 2
Book I: Clio
Herodotus introduces his inquiry into the causes of the Greco-Persian Wars, beginning with the Persian account of the abductions of Io, Europa, Medea, and Helen as the origins of conflict. He then recounts the rise of Cyrus the Great, including his conquest of Lydia, his interactions with Croesus, and the debate over whether to invade the land of the Massagetae. The chapter culminates in Cyrus's decision to cross the Araxes river, following Croesus's advice, setting the stage for his campaign against Queen Tomyris.
Chapter 3
Book II: Euterpe
Herodotus recounts the reign of Cambyses, who inherits the Persian throne and marches against Egypt. He then delves into Egyptian history, including Psammetichos' experiment to determine the oldest civilization, the achievements of Sesostris, the story of Pheros' blindness and cure, and the tale of Proteus and Helen. The chapter also covers the revolt of the Egyptian 'Deserters' to Ethiopia and an account of the Nile's unknown sources.
Chapter 4
Book III: Thaleia
This chapter recounts the madness of Cambyses, his mockery of Egyptian religious customs, and the cultural relativism illustrated by Darius's experiment with Greek and Indian funeral practices. It also narrates the story of Demokedes, his escape from Persian service, and the Persian reconnaissance of Hellas, as well as Syloson's gift of a mantle to Darius, which later leads to Persian intervention in Samos.
Chapter 5
Book IV: Melpomene
Darius, seeking vengeance against the Scythians for their past invasion of Media, launches a campaign into Scythia. The Scythians, a nomadic people, employ a strategy of retreat and harassment, avoiding direct confrontation. They send Darius cryptic gifts—a bird, a mouse, a frog, and five arrows—interpreted by Gobryas as a warning that the Persians will not return home unless they can fly, burrow, or leap away. Meanwhile, the Ionians guarding the bridge over the Ister debate whether to follow the Scythians' advice to destroy the bridge and free Ionia, but under Histiaios's influence, they decide to only partially break it, maintaining their positions under Darius.
Chapter 6
Book V: Terpsichore
This chapter details the Persian subjugation of Thrace under Megabazos, including the conquest of Perinthos and the customs of various Thracian tribes. It also covers the recall of Histiaios to Sardis by Darius, the appointment of Otanes as commander, and the Ionian Revolt's aftermath, including Xerxes' vow to punish Athens and Histiaios' deceptive plea to return to Ionia.
Chapter 7
Book VI: Erato
This chapter recounts the aftermath of the Ionian Revolt, including the capture of Miletos, the fate of Histiaios, and the Persian campaigns under Mardonios. It details the subjugation of Caria, the conquest of Chios, and the Persian demand for earth and water from Greek states, which leads to tensions between Athens and Aegina. The chapter also explores Spartan internal politics, particularly the conflict between Cleomenes and Demaratos.
Chapter 8
Book VII: Polymnia
Darius, enraged by the Athenian victory at Marathon and the burning of Sardis, prepares a massive expedition against Greece and Egypt. After his death, Xerxes inherits the throne and, persuaded by Mardonios and Demaratos, decides to invade Greece. Xerxes assembles a vast army and fleet, bridges the Hellespont, and crosses into Europe, despite portents and the counsel of Artabanos.
Chapter 9
Book VIII: Urania
The Athenians refuse Xerxes' terms, vowing never to betray the Hellenic cause despite the destruction of their city. The Battle of Salamis unfolds with the Greeks fighting in disciplined order, while the Persians fall into chaos. Artemisia distinguishes herself by ramming a Calyndian ship, earning Xerxes' praise that his men have become women and his women men. After the defeat, Xerxes consults Artemisia, who advises him to retreat and leave Mardonios to continue the campaign, a counsel the terrified king eagerly accepts.
Chapter 10
Book IX: Calliope
Mardonios leads the Persian army toward Athens, but the Athenians have evacuated to Salamis. The Persians capture an empty Athens and send offers of alliance, which the Athenians reject, even stoning one councilor who suggests considering them. The Greek generals, led by Pausanias, struggle with Persian cavalry harassment and water shortages, and plan to move their camp to the Island near Plataea. The chapter also includes a flashback to Cyrus advising the Persians to remain on rugged land to preserve their martial prowess and rule.
Chapter 11
Endnotes
This chapter consists of endnotes providing textual clarifications, variant readings, and explanatory comments on the main text of Herodotus' Histories. It includes discussions of geographical references, military terminology, numerical calculations, and textual emendations.
