Beyond Good and Evil · Chapter
191 explained
The chapter examines the ancient conflict between instinct (or faith) and reason in moral valuation, tracing it back to Socrates.
What happens
The chapter examines the ancient conflict between instinct (or faith) and reason in moral valuation, tracing it back to Socrates. It argues that Socrates, despite championing reason, secretly acknowledged the irrational basis of morality and sought to justify instinct with reason. Plato and most philosophers/theologians after him attempted to prove instinct and reason converge on the 'good,' leading to the historical triumph of instinct (or herd morality). Descartes is noted as a rare exception who upheld the sole authority of reason, though he is critiqued as superficial.
Themes in this chapter
Critique of Traditional Philosophy
Examines the foundational Socratic/Platonic project of reconciling instinct and reason in morality, revealing it as a self-outwitting or forced synthesis that has dominated Western thought.
Psychology as the Fundamental Science
Uses psychological analysis to uncover Socrates' 'real falseness' and secret self-awareness of irrational moral judgments, probing beneath philosophical doctrines to motives and self-deception.
Characters to notice
- Socrates
Portrayed as the dialectician who first sided with reason, mocking the instinct-driven noble Athenians, but who secretly laughed at himself, recognizing the irrationality in moral judgment and attempting to justify instinct with reason.
- Plato
Described as more innocent than Socrates, expending great philosophical strength to try to prove that reason and instinct lead spontaneously to the same good goal, setting a precedent for later theologians and philosophers.
- René Descartes
Identified as the father of rationalism and an exception who recognized only the authority of reason, though he is criticized as superficial for viewing reason as merely a tool.
- Christianity
Referenced indirectly as equating instinct with 'Faith,' part of the tradition where instinct (or herd morality) has triumphed in moral matters.
Key passages
“Socrates himself... took first the side of reason... In the end, however, though silently and secretly, he laughed also at himself... 'But why'—he said to himself—'should one on that account separate oneself from the instincts! One must set them right, and the reason also... persuade the reason to support them with good arguments.'”
Socrates initially championed reason over the instinct-driven nobility but privately acknowledged the same irrationality in himself. He concluded one shouldn't reject instinct but must instead manipulate reason to provide post-hoc justifications for it.
Highlights Socrates' ironic self-awareness and the foundational act of philosophical self-deception regarding morality.
“Plato, more innocent in such matters... wished to prove to himself... that reason and instinct lead spontaneously to one goal, to the good, to 'God'; and since Plato, all theologians and philosophers have followed the same path...”
Plato, less cunning than Socrates, attempted with immense effort to demonstrate a pre-established harmony between instinct and reason, directing both toward the Good/God. This attempt established the dominant path for subsequent Western moral philosophy and theology.
Identifies Plato's project as the origin point for the tradition that tries to synthesize instinct (faith) and reason.
“Unless one should make an exception in the case of Descartes... who recognized only the authority of reason: but reason is only a tool, and Descartes was superficial.”
Descartes stands as a rare exception in prioritizing reason alone, but his rationalism is dismissed as superficial because he failed to see that reason is merely an instrument.
A curt dismissal of Cartesian rationalism, reinforcing the chapter's skepticism about pure reason's authority.