# The Secret History — Chapters explained

> Chapter companions for The Secret History by Procopius.

- [Foreword by the Historian](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/foreword-by-the-historian.md): Procopius explains his shift from a formal chronicle of Roman wars to a secret history revealing the true, often scandalous, deeds of Justinian, Theodora, and Belisarius. He justifies his earlier omissions due to fear of
- [The Secret History](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/the-secret-history.md): Procopius's secret chronicle exposes the corruption, hypocrisy, and tyranny of Justinian and Theodora's reign, detailing their abuses of power, moral decadence, and the suffering inflicted upon the Roman Empire.
- [How the Great General Belisarius Was Hoodwinked by His Wife, Whose Lover Became a Monk](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/i-how-the-great-general-belisarius-was-hoodwinked-by-his-wife-whose-lover-became-a-monk.md): This chapter details the adulterous affair between Antonina, wife of the great general Belisarius, and Theodosius, a young Thracian whom Belisarius had adopted as a son. Despite being caught in the act, Belisarius is eas
- [II: How Belated Jealousy Affected Belisarius’s Military Judgment, to the Joy of the Enemy](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/ii-how-belated-jealousy-affected-belisarius-s-military-judgment-to-the-joy-of-the-enemy.md): Belisarius, consumed by jealousy over Antonina's affair with Theodosius, prioritizes personal vengeance over military duty. He takes Photius into his confidence, swears oaths of mutual loyalty, and plans to capture Theod
- [III: Showing the Danger of Interfering with a Woman’s Intrigues, Especially When the Woman Is the Friend of an Empress](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/iii-showing-the-danger-of-interfering-with-a-woman-s-intrigues-especially-when-the-woman-is-the-friend-of-an-empress.md): Theodora protects Antonina by hiding Theodosius in the palace and torturing Photius and Belisarius's friends. Photius escapes twice but is recaptured, eventually fleeing to Jerusalem. Belisarius fails in his campaign aga
- [How Theodora, Revenging Her Dear Antonina, Humiliated the Conqueror of Africa and Italy](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/iv-how-theodora-revenging-her-dear-antonina-humiliated-the-conqueror-of-africa-and-italy.md): Theodora, believing Belisarius and Buzes plotted against her during Justinian's illness, imprisons Buzes in a dungeon for over two years and strips Belisarius of his command, confiscates his wealth, and forces him into h
- [How Theodora Tricked the General’s Daughter Into a Liaison with the Empress’s Nephew, and Belisarius Became a Public Laughing Stock](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/v-how-theodora-tricked-the-general-s-daughter-into-a-liaison-with-the-empress-s-nephew-and-belisarius-became-a-public-laughing-stock.md): Belisarius returns from his second Italian expedition in disgrace, having plundered allies and lost Rome. His estrangement from John, nephew of Vitalian, due to Theodora's machinations, further cripples Roman efforts. Th
- [Ignorance of the Emperor Justin, and His Stencilled Signature, and How His Nephew Justinian Was the Virtual Ruler](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/vi-ignorance-of-the-emperor-justin-and-his-stencilled-signature-and-how-his-nephew-justinian-was-the-virtual-ruler.md): This chapter details the rise of Justin, an illiterate Illyrian farmer who became Roman Emperor through military power, and the de facto rule of his nephew Justinian, who is portrayed as a corrupt and destructive force. 
- [VII: Outrages of the Blues](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/vii-outrages-of-the-blues.md): Justinian aligns himself with the Blues faction, inciting them to violence and lawlessness, which plunges the Roman Empire into chaos. The Blues commit murders, robberies, and other atrocities with impunity, while the go
- [Character and Appearance of Justinian](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/viii-character-and-appearance-of-justinian.md): Procopius provides a scathing portrait of Emperor Justinian, describing him as deceitful, hypocritical, cruel, and easily led to evil, while also noting his average physique and resemblance to the hated Emperor Domitian.
- [IX: And How Theodora, Most Depraved of All Courtesans, Won His Love](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/ix-and-how-theodora-most-depraved-of-all-courtesans-won-his-love.md): This chapter recounts the early life of Theodora, from her impoverished childhood as the daughter of a bear-keeper to her rise as a notorious courtesan and actress in Constantinople. It details her shameless behavior on 
- [X: How Justinian Created a New Law Permitting Him to Marry a Courtesan on Her Promise to Repent Her Past; and the Truth About the Apparent Quarrels of a Happy Pair](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/x-how-justinian-created-a-new-law-permitting-him-to-marry-a-courtesan-on-her-promise-to-repent-her-past-and-the-truth-about-the-apparent-quarrels-of-a-happy-pair.md): Justinian, after the death of Empress Euphemia, manipulates the senile Emperor Justin to create a new law permitting marriage to a courtesan, enabling him to wed Theodora. He then seizes imperial power, and the couple as
- [XI: How the Defender of the Faith Ruined His Subjects](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/xi-how-the-defender-of-the-faith-ruined-his-subjects.md): Justinian, upon taking power, overturns established laws and customs, creating new offices and renaming everything after himself. He loots the wealthy, bribes barbarians to wage war, and sets Huns against the Romans for 
- [XII: Proving That Justinian and Theodora Were Actually Fiends in Human Form](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/xii-proving-that-justinian-and-theodora-were-actually-fiends-in-human-form.md): This chapter details the ruthless confiscation of wealth by Justinian and Theodora, targeting senators and wealthy citizens through fraud, forged wills, and bribery. It describes how they seized estates, including those 
- [XIII: Deceptive Affability and Piety of a Tyrant](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/xiii-deceptive-affability-and-piety-of-a-tyrant.md): This chapter exposes the profound hypocrisy and tyranny of Emperor Justinian, who presents a facade of affability and piety while ruthlessly destroying his subjects. It details his corruption, lawlessness, greed, and man
- [XIV: Justice for Sale](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/xiv-justice-for-sale.md): Procopius describes how Justinian debased the imperial office by personally issuing decrees, selling justice, and allowing bribery to corrupt the legal system. The Senate became a powerless formality, and the emperor, in
- [XV: How an Roman Citizens Became Slaves, and a Complaining Patrician Was Ribaldly Mocked by Theodora’s Eunuchs](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/xv-how-an-roman-citizens-became-slaves-and-a-complaining-patrician-was-ribaldly-mocked-by-theodora-s-eunuchs.md): The chapter details Theodora's unyielding cruelty and her absolute control over the Roman court, contrasting her harshness with Justinian's false geniality. It describes how she manipulated justice, destroyed enemies, an
- [XVI: What Happened to Those Who Fell Out of Favor with Theodora](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/xvi-what-happened-to-those-who-fell-out-of-favor-with-theodora.md): This chapter details Theodora's ruthless methods of dealing with those who offended her, including the murder of Queen Amalasuntha, the forced ordination of Priscus, the disappearance of Areobindus, and the torture and e
- [XVII: How She Saved Five Hundred Harlots from a Life of Sin, Made Away with Her Own Natural Son, and Other Curious Incidents of Her Passion for Match Making](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/xvii-how-she-saved-five-hundred-harlots-from-a-life-of-sin-made-away-with-her-own-natural-son-and-other-curious-incidents-of-her-passion-for-match-making.md): Theodora's absolute control over state and personal affairs is detailed: she manipulates marriages, punishes those who oppose her, forces widows into unwanted unions, confines harlots to a monastery, and even disposes of
- [XVIII: How Justinian Killed a Trillion People](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/xviii-how-justinian-killed-a-trillion-people.md): Procopius accuses Justinian of being a demon in human form who caused the deaths of a trillion people through devastating wars, oppressive taxation, neglect of soldiers, religious persecution, civil strife, and natural d
- [XIX: How He Seized All the Wealth of the Romans and Threw It Away in the Sea and on the Barbarians](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/xix-how-he-seized-all-the-wealth-of-the-romans-and-threw-it-away-in-the-sea-and-on-the-barbarians.md): Justinian, upon inheriting a well-funded treasury from Anastasius, rapidly exhausts the state's wealth through extravagant building projects and lavish gifts to barbarians. He then turns to plundering his subjects via fa
- [XX: Debasing of the Quaestorship](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/xx-debasing-of-the-quaestorship.md): This chapter details how Justinian systematically debased the office of Quaestor, appointing corrupt and unqualified men like Tribonian, Junilus, and Constantine, who sold decrees and plundered the state. It also describ
- [XXI: The Sky Tax, the Selling of All Offices, and How Border Armies Were Forbidden to Punish Invading Barbarians](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/xxi-the-sky-tax-the-selling-of-all-offices-and-how-border-armies-were-forbidden-to-punish-invading-barbarians.md): This chapter details Justinian's corrupt system of selling public offices to the worst scoundrels, who then plundered the subjects to repay their debts and enrich themselves, only to have their fortunes confiscated by th
- [XXII: Further Corruption in High Places](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/xxii-further-corruption-in-high-places.md): After dismissing John the Cappadocian, Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora seek an even more corrupt successor. They appoint Theodotus temporarily, then replace him with Peter Barsyames, a Syrian banker known for thie
- [XXIII: How Landowners Were Ruined](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/xxiii-how-landowners-were-ruined.md): Procopius details the systematic ruin of landowners under Justinian's reign. He contrasts past emperors who periodically remitted arrears with Justinian's thirty-two-year refusal to do so, forcing debtors into flight. He
- [XXIV: Unjust Treatment of the Soldiers, and How Justinian Tricked the “Students” Out of Their Pay by Threatening to Send Them to War](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/xxiv-unjust-treatment-of-the-soldiers-and-how-justinian-tricked-the-students-out-of-their-pay-by-threatening-to-send-them-to-war.md): Justinian systematically defrauds and impoverishes the Roman military through corrupt schemes: selling commissions, creating supernumerary units only to disband them without refund, threatening the Student Corps with act
- [XXV: How He Robbed His Own Officials, Merchants, Sailors, Workmen, and Everybody Else](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/xxv-how-he-robbed-his-own-officials-merchants-sailors-workmen-and-everybody-else.md): Justinian systematically robs his own officials by withholding their pensions, then imposes oppressive customs duties on merchants and sailors at both straits, debases the coinage to cheat the people, and finally seizes 
- [XXVI: How He Spoiled the Beauty of the Cities and Plundered the Poor](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/xxvi-how-he-spoiled-the-beauty-of-the-cities-and-plundered-the-poor.md): This chapter details how Emperor Justinian systematically ruined the cities of the Roman Empire, particularly Constantinople, by debasing the legal profession, cutting subsidies to physicians and teachers, diverting muni
- [XXVII: How the Defender of the Faith Protected the Interests of the Christians](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/xxvii-how-the-defender-of-the-faith-protected-the-interests-of-the-christians.md): Procopius recounts several episodes illustrating Justinian's hypocrisy and greed in religious matters. He describes the appointment and subsequent murder of a deacon by Paul, the Bishop of Alexandria, with the complicity
- [XXVIII: His Violation of the Laws of the Romans, and How Jews Were Fined for Eating Lamb](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/xxviii-his-violation-of-the-laws-of-the-romans-and-how-jews-were-fined-for-eating-lamb.md): Justinian abolishes the statute of limitations for the church to enable a fraudulent scheme against wealthy citizens of Emesa, orchestrated by the forger Priscus and church officials, and later suppresses Jewish Passover
- [XXIX: Other Incidents Revealing Him as a Liar and a Hypocrite](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/xxix-other-incidents-revealing-him-as-a-liar-and-a-hypocrite.md): Procopius details further examples of Justinian's deceit, hypocrisy, and greed, including his betrayal of the Blues, his contradictory letters regarding Liberius's office, and his seizure of estates from legal heirs unde
- [XXX: Further Innovations of Justinian and Theodora, and a Conclusion Which Imagines the Death of an Emperor](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/xxx-further-innovations-of-justinian-and-theodora-and-a-conclusion-which-imagines-the-death-of-an-emperor.md): This chapter details the tyrannical innovations of Justinian and Theodora, including the degradation of senatorial homage to prostrate foot-kissing, the forced residence of magistrates in the palace, the dismantling of t
- [Endnotes](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_secret_history_se/chapters/endnotes.md): This chapter provides endnotes that clarify and expand upon various historical figures, events, and terms mentioned in the main text, including Belisarius's origins, the fates of Silverius, John of Cappadocia, Constantin

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