# IX: The World of Universals explained — The Problems of Philosophy

> Chapter companion for The Problems of Philosophy by Bertrand Russell.

## What happens

Russell introduces the concept of universals, entities that are not physical, mental, or sense-data, and traces the idea back to Plato's theory of forms. He argues that universals such as relations and qualities are timeless, subsist independently of thought, and are necessary for all truths and knowledge. The chapter defends the reality of universals against empiricist objections, particularly those of Berkeley and Hume, and distinguishes between the world of being (universals) and the world of existence (particulars).

## Themes in this chapter

### Universals and Particulars

The entire chapter is devoted to defining universals as timeless, subsistent entities opposed to particular things given in sensation, and arguing for their necessity in all truths and knowledge.

### Truth and Falsehood

Russell argues that all truths involve universals, and that knowledge of truths requires acquaintance with universals, using the example of the relation 'north of' to illustrate a truth independent of mind.

## Character check-ins

### Plato

Russell presents Plato's theory of ideas as the foundation for understanding universals, noting that the chapter's view is largely Plato's with modifications.

### Bishop Berkeley

Berkeley's rejection of abstract ideas and his idealism are criticized; Russell argues that Berkeley and Hume failed to recognize relations as universals.

### Hume

Hume is mentioned alongside Berkeley as failing to perceive the refutation of their rejection of abstract ideas, due to ignoring relations as universals.

### Immanuel Kant

Kant's reasons for denying the independence of relations are mentioned as inadequate, alongside Berkeley's.

## Key lines

> The essence of the sort of entity that Plato meant is that it is opposed to the particular things that are given in sensation. We speak of whatever is given in sensation, or is of the same nature as things given in sensation, as a particular; by opposition to this, a universal will be anything which may be shared by many particulars, and has those characteristics which, as we saw, distinguish justice and whiteness from just acts and white things.

A universal is the opposite of a particular: it is something that can be common to many individual things, like justice or whiteness, unlike specific just acts or white objects.

_Russell defines the core distinction between particulars and universals, central to the chapter._

> The world of being is unchangeable, rigid, exact, delightful to the mathematician, the logician, the builder of metaphysical systems, and all who love perfection more than life. The world of existence is fleeting, vague, without sharp boundaries, without any clear plan or arrangement, but it contains all thoughts and feelings, all the data of sense, and all physical objects, everything that can do either good or harm, everything that makes any difference to the value of life and the world.

The realm of universals is timeless and perfect, appealing to logicians and mathematicians, while the world of particular things is changing and imprecise but includes everything that affects our lives and values.

_Russell contrasts the two worlds, emphasizing that both are real and important._

## Links

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