# Book II explained — The Columbiad > Chapter companion for The Columbiad by Joel Barlow. ## What happens Columbus, guided by Hesper, witnesses a vision of the native peoples of America, their diverse tribes and customs. He questions the causes of human diversity across regions. Hesper explains that variations in climate, soil, and elemental proportions shape both body and mind. Columbus then views Mexico and its destruction by Cortez, and the cities of Cusco and Quito in Peru. Hesper recounts the tradition of Capac and Oella, founders of the Incan empire, revealing the stratagems they used to establish their rule, including feigning divine descent from the Sun. The chapter concludes with Hesper consoling Columbus about the future tyranny of Pizarro and the enduring value of his own discoveries. ## Themes in this chapter ### Discovery and Exploration Columbus explores the New World through vision, seeking to understand its peoples and origins. ### Colonialism and Its Consequences The chapter depicts the destruction of Mexico by Cortez and foreshadows Pizarro's devastation of Peru, highlighting the violent impact of European conquest. ### Nature and the Divine Hesper explains human diversity through natural elements, while Capac and Oella use a divine fiction (descent from the Sun) to establish their rule. ## Character check-ins ### Christopher Columbus Observes the vision of native tribes and questions Hesper about human diversity and the origins of the American peoples. ### Hesper Guides Columbus, explains the causes of human variation, and recounts the founding of the Incan empire by Capac and Oella. ### Manco Capac Founder of the Incan empire, who with Oella uses a divine fiction to civilize the tribes and establish rule. ### Oella Capac's bride and co-founder, who devises the plan to wear white robes and claim descent from the Sun to deceive the tribes. ### Hernando Cortez Mentioned as the destroyer of Mexico, foreshadowing similar destruction by Pizarro in Peru. ### Pizarro Cursed as the reviver of Cortez's treachery and fraud, destined to bring ruin to Peru. ## Key lines > High o'er his world as thus Columbus gazed, And Hesper still the changing scene emblazed, Round all the realms increasing lustre flew And raised new wonders to the Patriarch's view. As Columbus looked over the world from a high vantage point, Hesper illuminated the ever-changing scene, casting a growing light that revealed new marvels to the patriarch. _Sets the visionary tone for Columbus's guided tour of the Americas._ > Their human frames with brutal souls combine, No power can tame them and no arts refine; Can these be fashion'd on the social plan, Or boast a lineage with the race of man? Columbus wonders if these people, with their savage behavior, can ever be civilized or considered part of the human family. _Reflects colonial attitudes of racial and cultural superiority._ > In due proportions where these atoms lie, A certain form their equal aids supply; And while unchanged the efficient causes reign, Age following age the certain form maintain. When the elements are balanced, a stable form is maintained across generations, but imbalances cause variation. _Hesper's explanation of environmental determinism shaping human diversity._ > Long robes of white my shoulders must embrace, To speak my lineage of ethereal race; That simple men may reverence and obey The radiant offspring of the Power of day. Capac plans to wear white robes to claim descent from the Sun, so that the people will revere and obey him as divine. _Key stratagem in the founding of the Incan empire._ > Another Cortez shall their treasures view, His rage rekindle and his guilt renew; His treason, fraud and every fell design, O curst Pizarro, shall revive in thine. Hesper predicts that Pizarro will repeat Cortez's treachery and destruction in Peru. _Foreshadows the Spanish conquest of the Incan empire._ ## Links - HTML: https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_columbiad_se/chapters/book-ii - Book: https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_columbiad_se - All chapters: https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_columbiad_se/chapters