# The City of God — Chapters explained

> Chapter companions for The City of God by Augustine of Hippo.

- [Editor's Preface](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/editor-s-preface.md): The editor introduces Augustine's City of God, explaining its occasion (the sack of Rome by the Goths and pagan accusations against Christianity), its plan (twenty-two books refuting pagan worship and establishing the tw
- [On the City of God Against the Pagans](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/on-the-city-of-god-against-the-pagans.md): Augustine begins his monumental work defending the Christian faith against pagan accusations that the sack of Rome by the Goths was due to the abandonment of the old gods. He introduces the concept of two cities—the eart
- [Book I](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-book-i.md): Augustine defends the Christian religion against pagan accusations that the sack of Rome by the Goths was due to the abandonment of the old gods. He argues that the calamities of life befall both good and bad alike, and 
- [I](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-i.md): Augustine addresses the adversaries of Christ who, though spared by the barbarians out of respect for Christ during the sack of Rome, now reproach the Christian religion. He argues that their preservation is due to divin
- [II](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-ii.md): Augustine argues that it is contrary to the customs of war for victors to spare the vanquished for the sake of their gods, citing historical examples such as the fall of Troy where temples and images were not protected.
- [III](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-iii.md): Augustine criticizes the Romans for entrusting their city to gods who were unable to defend Troy, as depicted in Virgil's Aeneid. He argues that these conquered gods could not protect Rome, and that the Romans' trust in 
- [Of the asylum of Juno in Troy, which saved no one from the Greeks; and of the churches of the apostles, which protected from the barbarians all who fled to them.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-iv.md): Augustine contrasts the failure of Juno's temple in Troy to protect Trojan captives from the Greeks with the success of the apostolic churches in preserving the liberty and dignity of those who fled to them during the ba
- [V](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-v.md): Augustine cites Caesar's own testimony, as recorded by Sallust, describing the universal horrors of sacking a city—including the violation of virgins, slaughter, and plunder of temples—to argue that such atrocities are n
- [VI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-vi.md): Augustine argues that the Romans, despite their reputation for sparing the vanquished, did not spare the conquered in their temples. He cites examples of Marcellus at Syracuse and Fabius at Tarentum to show that no speci
- [VII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-vii.md): Augustine argues that the cruelties of the sack of Rome were typical of war, but the clemency shown by the barbarians—sparing those in churches—was a novel act attributable to the name of Christ and the Christian temper.
- [Of the advantages and disadvantages which often indiscriminately accrue to good and wicked men](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-viii.md): Augustine explains that God's mercy extends to both the good and the wicked, as seen in the common distribution of temporal goods and ills. He argues that this commonality prevents excessive desire for worldly goods and 
- [IX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-ix.md): Augustine discusses why the good are chastised alongside the wicked during temporal calamities. He argues that the good, though not equally corrupt, share a love for this present life and often fail to rebuke sinners due
- [X](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-x.md): Augustine argues that the saints lose nothing of true value when they lose temporal goods, because their faith, godliness, and inner riches are secure. He uses the examples of Job and Paulinus of Nola to show that earthl
- [Of the end of this life, whether it is material that it be long delayed](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xi.md): Augustine argues that the manner and timing of death are unimportant for the righteous, since death ends all lives equally and what matters is the state of the soul after death. He contrasts the fear of many deaths with 
- [Of the burial of the dead: that the denial of it to Christians does them no injury](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xii.md): Augustine argues that the denial of burial to Christians does them no real harm, as their resurrection is assured by God. He emphasizes that the body's fate after death is irrelevant to the soul's salvation, citing Chris
- [Reasons for Burying the Bodies of the Saints](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xiii.md): Augustine argues that the bodies of the righteous and faithful should be treated with honor and care, as they were instruments of the Holy Spirit. He emphasizes that burial rites are not for the dead, who cannot feel, bu
- [Of the captivity of the saints, and that divine consolation never failed them therein.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xiv.md): Augustine addresses the objection that many Christians were taken captive, arguing that even in captivity they are never separated from God's consolation. He contrasts the biblical stories of Daniel, the three youths, an
- [XV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xv.md): Augustine uses the example of Marcus Attilius Regulus, a Roman general who voluntarily endured captivity and torture to keep his oath to the gods, to argue that the pagan gods do not secure temporal happiness for their w
- [Of the violation of the consecrated and other Christian virgins to which they were subjected in captivity, and to which their own will gave no consent; and whether this contaminated their souls.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xvi.md): Augustine addresses the accusation that Christian virgins were violated during the sack of Rome, arguing that virtue resides in the soul and that bodily violation without consent of the will does not defile the soul. He 
- [Of suicide committed through fear of punishment or dishonour](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xvii.md): Augustine argues that suicide is a form of homicide and is never justified, even to avoid dishonor or punishment. He uses the example of Judas to show that self-killing adds another sin rather than expiating guilt, and i
- [Of the violence which may be done to the body by another's lust, while the mind remains inviolate](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xviii.md): Augustine argues that purity is a virtue of the soul, not the body, and that bodily violation by another's lust does not destroy the sanctity of the soul if the will remains chaste and unconsenting. He distinguishes betw
- [XIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xix.md): Augustine examines the case of Lucretia, a Roman matron who committed suicide after being raped by Sextus Tarquinius. He contrasts her action with that of Christian women who suffered similar violation but chose to live,
- [Chapter XX: That Christians Have No Authority for Committing Suicide in Any Circumstances Whatever](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xx.md): Augustine argues that suicide is prohibited by the commandment 'Thou shalt not kill,' as it applies to all humans, including oneself, and that no biblical passage permits self-killing for any reason.
- [Of the cases in which we may put men to death without incurring the guilt of murder](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxi.md): Augustine discusses the exceptions to the commandment 'Thou shalt not kill,' arguing that killing is justified either by a general law (e.g., waging war in obedience to divine command or representing public justice) or b
- [XXII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxii.md): Augustine argues that suicide is not an act of magnanimity but rather a sign of a feeble mind unable to bear hardships or public opinion. He critiques the example of Cleombrotus, who killed himself after reading Plato on
- [XXIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxiii.md): Augustine critiques the example of Cato's suicide, arguing that Cato's own advice to his son to trust Caesar's mercy undermines the claim that suicide was an honorable act. He suggests Cato's act was motivated by weaknes
- [XXIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxiv.md): Augustine contrasts the virtue of Regulus with that of Cato, arguing that Christians, like the saintly Job, endure suffering rather than commit suicide. He praises Regulus for his patient endurance of captivity and his r
- [XXV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxv.md): Augustine argues against the idea that suicide is a permissible way to avoid future sin, particularly the sin of consenting to sexual violation. He asserts that a soul guided by God will not consent to lustful desires, a
- [XXVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxvi.md): Augustine discusses the exceptional cases of self-destruction among holy women during persecution, noting that such acts may be justified if divinely commanded, as with Samson and Abraham. He emphasizes that without clea
- [Whether voluntary death should be sought in order to avoid sin](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxvii.md): Augustine argues against the idea that suicide can be justified to avoid sin, using the example of a baptized person who might consider killing themselves to escape future sin. He contends that if such a reason were vali
- [XXVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxviii.md): Augustine consoles faithful Christians whose chastity was violated by barbarians, arguing that God's providence permitted this for their humility and correction, and that true chastity of the soul cannot be taken against
- [XXIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxix.md): Augustine explains how the servants of Christ should respond to unbelievers who taunt them for not being rescued from temporal calamities. He emphasizes that the family of God has a sure consolation in eternal life, uses
- [The Moral Decay of Rome and the Fear of Security](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxx.md): Augustine argues that complaints against Christianity stem from a desire for unrestrained luxury and moral license. He invokes Scipio Nasica, who opposed the destruction of Carthage out of fear that peace would lead to m
- [XXXI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxxi.md): Augustine analyzes the progression of the passion for governing among the Romans, tracing how prosperity led to avarice and luxury, which in turn corrupted the people. He highlights Scipio Nasica's opposition to destroyi
- [Of the establishment of scenic entertainments](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxxii.md): Augustine argues that the scenic games, which are exhibitions of shameless folly and licence, were established at Rome not by human vice but by the appointment of the pagan gods. He contrasts the gods' command to hold ga
- [XXXIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxxiii.md): Augustine rebukes the Romans for their continued indulgence in vice and theatrical entertainments even after the sack of Rome, contrasting their moral decay with the wisdom of Scipio who forbade theatres to preserve virt
- [Of God's Clemency in Moderating the Ruin of the City](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxxiv.md): Augustine argues that the survival of the Romans after the sack of Rome is due to God's mercy, intended to lead them to repentance. He contrasts the asylum of Romulus and Remus, which welcomed all criminals to increase t
- [Of the sons of the church who are hidden among the wicked, and of false Christians within the church](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxxv.md): Augustine discusses the intermingling of the two cities—the city of God and the earthly city—in the present world, noting that some who are enemies now will become fellow-citizens, and some who share the sacraments will 
- [What subjects are to be handled in the following discourse](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxxvi.md): Augustine outlines his plan to refute those who blame Christianity for the disasters of Rome, by recounting calamities before the prohibition of sacrifices, showing how the true God granted Rome's empire, exposing the de
- [Book II](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-book-ii.md): Augustine reviews the calamities suffered by Rome before Christ, arguing that the false gods did not preserve Rome from misfortune but instead corrupted its morals. He defends Christianity against charges of causing Rome
- [Of the limits which must be put to the necessity of replying to an adversary](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-i.md): Augustine addresses the futility of endless debate with those who resist clear truth due to blindness or obstinacy. He explains that while it is sometimes necessary to elaborate on obvious points for the sake of the stub
- [Recapitulation of the Contents of the First Book](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-ii.md): Augustine recapitulates the arguments of the first book, defending Christianity against the charge that the recent sack of Rome by the barbarians was due to the abandonment of pagan gods. He emphasizes that the barbarian
- [III](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-iii.md): Augustine argues that the Romans suffered calamities before Christianity, and that their gods failed to protect them. He challenges pagans who blame Christianity for disasters that have always occurred.
- [IV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-iv.md): Augustine criticizes the pagan gods for failing to provide moral laws or prophets to guide their worshippers, and he recounts the obscene rituals and spectacles performed in their honor, arguing that such practices revea
- [Of the obscenities practised in honour of the mother of the gods](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-v.md): Augustine condemns the obscene rites performed in honor of Cybele, the mother of the gods, and imagines how Scipio Nasica, the best Roman citizen chosen to receive her image, would be horrified by such practices. He argu
- [That the gods of the pagans never inculcated holiness of life](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-vi.md): Augustine argues that the pagan gods never provided moral instruction or prohibitions against vice to their worshippers, contrasting this with Christian churches where such teachings are given. He challenges pagans to pr
- [VII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-vii.md): Augustine argues that philosophical teachings lack moral authority because they are human discoveries, not divine commandments, and that people are more influenced by the shameful examples of the gods than by the precept
- [VIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-viii.md): Augustine argues that the theatrical exhibitions which publicized the shameful actions of the gods were not offensive to them but rather propitiated them. He notes that these entertainments were not introduced by ignoran
- [IX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-ix.md): Augustine contrasts the moral restraint of the ancient Romans, who by law forbade public defamation on the stage, with the licentiousness of the Greeks, who allowed comedies to mock even their gods. He cites Cicero's De 
- [Chapter X: The Malice of Devils in Permitting False Crimes to Be Laid to Their Charge](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-x.md): Augustine argues that the devils, whether the stories told of the gods are true or false, use these tales to ensnare men in sin and lead them to punishment. He contends that even if the crimes are invented, the devils al
- [XI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xi.md): The chapter discusses how the Greeks, in their reasonableness, granted civic honors to actors and players because they believed these entertainments pleased the gods. It contrasts this with the Christian perspective that
- [Chapter XII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xii.md): Augustine criticizes the Romans for granting poets the freedom to slander the gods while punishing any defamation of Roman citizens, highlighting their hypocrisy and misplaced priorities.
- [XIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xiii.md): Augustine argues that the Romans should have recognized that gods demanding worship through licentious theatrical entertainments are unworthy of divine honor. He contrasts the Greek practice of honoring players with the 
- [XIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xiv.md): Augustine contrasts the moral depravity of the Roman gods, who demand theatrical plays celebrating their own vices, with the wisdom of Plato, who excluded poets from his ideal republic to protect citizens from corruption
- [Chapter XV: That it was vanity, not reason, which created some of the Roman gods.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xv.md): Augustine argues that the selection of certain Roman gods was driven by vanity rather than reason, using the example of Romulus who was honored with a flamen (a high priest) and preferred over gods like Neptune, Pluto, a
- [XVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xvi.md): Augustine argues that if the Roman gods truly cared for righteousness, they would have given the Romans good laws directly, rather than forcing them to borrow laws from other nations like the Athenians. He notes that the
- [Of the rape of the Sabine women, and other iniquities perpetrated in Rome’s palmiest days.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xvii.md): Augustine critiques the moral foundation of early Rome by highlighting the rape of the Sabine women and other injustices committed by Romans, arguing that such acts contradict the notion of natural equity and virtue prai
- [XVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xviii.md): Augustine uses Sallust's historical testimony to argue that Rome was deeply corrupt even before Christ's birth, and that its moral decay was not due to Christianity but to its own vices. He contrasts the temporary equity
- [Of the corruption which had grown upon the Roman republic before Christ abolished the worship of the gods](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xix.md): Augustine argues that the Roman republic had become utterly wicked and dissolute long before the coming of Christ, as admitted by Roman authors themselves. He contrasts the lack of divine laws against luxury and avarice 
- [Chapter XX: Of the kind of happiness and life truly delighted in by those who inveigh against the Christian religion](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xx.md): Augustine critiques those who attack Christianity while desiring a republic focused on wealth, pleasure, and power without moral restraint. He contrasts their ideal of a licentious society with true happiness, arguing th
- [Chapter XXI: Cicero's Opinion of the Roman Republic](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxi.md): Augustine examines Cicero's critique of the Roman republic, arguing that without true justice, Rome never truly existed as a republic. He contrasts Cicero's definition of a people as an assemblage bound by law and common
- [XXII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxii.md): Augustine argues that the Roman gods never provided moral guidance to prevent the republic's decay, and that the gods' abandonment of Rome was due to the citizens' immorality, not Christianity. He challenges the pagans t
- [XXIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxiii.md): Augustine argues that the vicissitudes of life depend not on demons but on the will of the true God. He uses the examples of Marius and Regulus to show that earthly prosperity or suffering is not a sign of divine favor o
- [Of the deeds of Sylla, in which the demons boasted that he had their help.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxiv.md): Augustine recounts the deeds of Sylla, highlighting how the demons (false gods) boasted of aiding him through auspices, prophecies, and signs, yet never corrected his cruel and vicious behavior. He argues that these demo
- [XXV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxv.md): Augustine argues that evil spirits incite men to wicked actions by providing divine authority through their own example, such as by staging a phantom battle in Campania that mirrored the civil wars of Rome. He contends t
- [XXVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxvi.md): Augustine argues that the demons, while giving secret moral precepts to a few initiates, publicly celebrate and encourage all forms of wickedness through their religious rites. He contrasts the hidden whispers of feigned
- [XXVII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxvii.md): Augustine argues that the obscene plays performed to propitiate the Roman gods actually contributed to the overthrow of public morality and order. He cites Cicero's involvement in such games and contends that appeasing t
- [XXVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxviii.md): Augustine defends the Christian religion as health-giving, contrasting the chaste worship and moral instruction in churches with the corrupting influences of pagan spirits. He argues that those who complain about Christi
- [XXIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxix.md): Augustine exhorts the Romans to renounce paganism and embrace the true religion of the one God, arguing that their ancestors' virtues are perfected only through true piety. He contrasts the earthly city of Rome with the 
- [Book III: External Calamities and the Failure of the Pagan Gods](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-book-iii.md): Augustine argues that the pagan gods failed to protect Rome from external disasters such as war, famine, and pestilence, even when they were worshipped exclusively before Christ. He uses examples like the fall of Troy, t
- [I](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-i.md): Augustine argues that the evils which the heathen most fear—famine, pestilence, war, captivity, and massacre—were not prevented by their false gods even when those gods were most worshipped. He notes that before Christ's
- [Whether the gods, whom the Greeks and Romans worshipped in common, were justified in permitting the destruction of Ilium](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-ii.md): Augustine questions why the gods, worshipped by both Greeks and Romans, allowed the destruction of Troy (Ilium), the supposed cradle of Rome. He examines the myth of Laomedon's perjury against Apollo and Neptune, who bui
- [III](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-iii.md): Augustine argues that the gods cannot have been offended by Paris's adultery, since such crimes are common among the gods themselves. He points out the inconsistency in claiming the gods abandoned Troy due to Paris's sin
- [Of Varro's opinion, that it is useful for men to feign themselves the offspring of the gods.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-iv.md): Augustine discusses Varro's view that it is beneficial for states to propagate the false belief that brave men are descended from the gods, as this encourages boldness and success. Augustine criticizes this as opening th
- [Chapter V: The Inconsistency of the Gods' Anger at Adultery](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-v.md): Augustine argues that it is inconsistent for the gods to punish Paris for adultery when they themselves are depicted as committing adultery, such as Mars with the mother of Romulus. He questions whether the gods can legi
- [VI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-vi.md): Augustine compares the gods' response to the fratricide of Romulus with their response to Paris's adultery, arguing that the gods' abandonment of Troy and favor toward Rome is inconsistent and reveals their deceptive nat
- [VII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-vii.md): Augustine questions the moral and theological implications of the destruction of Ilium by Fimbria, a lieutenant of Marius, during the Roman civil wars. He contrasts the Greek sack of Troy, where many escaped or were spar
- [Whether Rome ought to have been entrusted to the Trojan gods?](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-viii.md): Augustine questions the wisdom of entrusting Rome to the Trojan gods, who had already failed to protect Troy. He points out the inconsistency in believing these gods could defend Rome when they could not even save their 
- [IX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-ix.md): Augustine questions the claim that the peace during Numa Pompilius's reign was a gift from the Roman gods, arguing that true peace comes from the one true God, who grants it even to the ungrateful. He contrasts Numa's ra
- [Chapter X: The Price of Empire and the Illusion of Peace](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-x.md): Augustine questions whether the Roman empire's expansion through incessant wars was truly desirable, contrasting it with the peaceful reign of Numa. He argues that greatness achieved through conflict is akin to a giant's
- [Of the statue of Apollo at Cumae, whose tears are supposed to have portended disaster to the Greeks, whom the god was unable to succour.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xi.md): Augustine discusses the story of the Cuman Apollo statue that wept during the war against King Aristonicus, interpreting the tears as a portent of Greek disaster. He contrasts pagan interpretations with the weakness of t
- [XII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xii.md): Augustine criticizes the Roman multiplication of gods, arguing that the vast number of deities did not protect Rome from calamities, and contrasts this with the true worship of the one God.
- [XIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xiii.md): Augustine critiques the violent and unjust means by which the Romans obtained their first wives, highlighting the absurdity of claiming divine protection when the city's origins are steeped in war, theft, and familial bl
- [XIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xiv.md): Augustine condemns the Roman war against Alba, arguing that it was driven by lust for power rather than justice. He contrasts the grief of the sister of the Horatii with Roman celebration of victory, and criticizes the g
- [XV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xv.md): Augustine examines the lives and deaths of the Roman kings, highlighting the moral corruption and violence that marked their reigns, and argues that the gods did not abandon Rome despite such crimes, questioning the valu
- [Of the first Roman consuls, the one of whom drove the other from the country, and shortly after perished at Rome by the hand of a wounded enemy, and so ended a career of unnatural murders](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xvi.md): Augustine recounts the calamitous early history of the Roman consulship, focusing on the first consuls Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus. Brutus banished his colleague Collatinus due to his Tarquin name, the
- [Chapter XVII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xvii.md): Augustine recounts the disasters that befell the Roman republic after the establishment of the consulship, arguing that the Roman gods failed to protect the city from internal strife, military defeats, famines, plagues, 
- [Chapter XVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xviii.md): Augustine recounts the disasters suffered by the Romans during the Punic wars, arguing that the pagan gods provided no protection. He highlights the capture of Regulus, the flooding of the Tiber, and a fire that destroye
- [Of the calamity of the second Punic war, which consumed the strength of both parties](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xix.md): Augustine recounts the devastating effects of the Second Punic War, emphasizing the immense suffering and resource depletion on both sides. He highlights the crushing Roman defeat at Cannae, the desperate conscription of
- [Of the Destruction of the Saguntines, Who Received No Help from the Roman Gods, Though Perishing on Account of Their Fidelity to Rome](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xx.md): Augustine uses the tragic fate of the Saguntines—a city destroyed for its fidelity to Rome during the Second Punic War—to argue that the Roman gods were powerless or indifferent to protect even their most faithful allies
- [Of the ingratitude of Rome to Scipio, its deliverer, and of its manners during the period which Sallust describes as the best.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxi.md): Augustine discusses the ingratitude of Rome towards Scipio, its great deliverer, who after defeating Hannibal and Carthage was forced into exile. He contrasts the period of supposed virtue and concord between the second 
- [Of the edict of Mithridates, commanding that all Roman citizens found in Asia should be slain.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxii.md): Augustine recounts the horrific massacre of Roman citizens in Asia ordered by King Mithridates, emphasizing the sudden, treacherous nature of the killings and the moral anguish of those forced to participate. He challeng
- [XXIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxiii.md): Augustine recounts the internal disasters that plagued the Roman republic, focusing on the civil wars and social upheavals that were more destructive than external conflicts. He describes a portentous madness that seized
- [Of the civil dissension occasioned by the sedition of the Gracchi](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxiv.md): Augustine recounts the civil wars that began with the seditions of the Gracchi over agrarian reforms, detailing the violent deaths of both brothers, the massacre of citizens, and the brutal aftermath including the judici
- [Of the temple of Concord, which was erected by a decree of the senate on the scene of these seditions and massacres.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxv.md): Augustine criticizes the Roman decision to build a temple to Concord on the site of violent civil strife, arguing that it mocks the gods and reveals the inconsistency of Roman religion, which honors both good and bad dei
- [Of the various kinds of wars which followed the building of the temple of Concord](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxvi.md): Augustine argues that the temple of Concord, built to commemorate the punishment of the Gracchi, failed to prevent further sedition. He recounts a series of increasingly devastating wars—including the social wars, servil
- [Of the civil war between Marius and Sylla](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxvii.md): Augustine describes the brutal civil war between Marius and Sylla, highlighting the mass slaughter of Roman citizens in streets, squares, markets, theatres, and temples. He cites Cicero and Lucan to emphasize that the ve
- [Of the victory of Sylla, the avenger of the cruelties of Marius](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxviii.md): This chapter describes the brutal victory of Sylla over the Marian faction, detailing the massacres and atrocities committed both during and after the war, including the slaughter of unarmed prisoners, the torture of the
- [A Comparison of the Disasters of the Gothic and Gallic Invasions with Those of the Civil Wars](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxix.md): Augustine compares the foreign invasions of Rome by the Gauls and Goths with the internal devastation wrought by the civil wars, particularly under Marius and Sylla. He argues that the cruelty of citizens against citizen
- [Of the connection of the wars which with great severity and frequency followed one another before the advent of Christ](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxx.md): Augustine argues that the civil wars and disasters that plagued Rome began long before the coming of Christ, and therefore cannot be blamed on Christianity. He traces a chain of civil wars from Marius and Sylla through S
- [XXXI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxxi.md): Augustine argues that it is shameless to blame Christianity and the prohibition of polytheistic worship for current troubles, since similar or worse calamities occurred when the pagan gods were still worshipped. He cites
- [Book IV: The One True God, Not the Pagan Gods, Is the Author of Earthly Kingdoms](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-book-iv.md): Augustine argues that the rise and long duration of the Roman Empire should be attributed to the one true God, the author of felicity, and not to the pagan gods. He reviews his earlier arguments against those who blame C
- [I](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-i.md): Augustine introduces his work on the City of God by addressing its enemies who blame Christianity for their sufferings, arguing that these are divine admonitions rather than punishments. He refutes their ignorance by cit
- [Of those things which are contained in Books II and III](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-ii.md): Augustine summarizes the content of Books II and III, which addressed those who blamed the Christian religion for the calamities of the Roman republic. He recounts the evils—both moral and physical—that Rome suffered bef
- [Whether the Great Extent of the Empire is to Be Reckoned Among the Good Things of the Wise or the Happy](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-iii.md): Augustine questions the value of a vast empire gained through war, arguing that true happiness lies not in dominion but in piety, virtue, and peace. He contrasts the anxious rich man with the contented moderate man, exte
- [How Like Kingdoms Without Justice Are to Robberies](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-iv.md): Augustine argues that kingdoms without justice are essentially great robberies, drawing a parallel between a pirate's seizure of ships and a king's conquest of lands. He recounts the famous reply of a captured pirate to 
- [Of the runaway gladiators whose power became like that of royal dignity.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-v.md): Augustine discusses the rise of a band of gladiators in Campania who escaped, formed a large army, and terrorized Italy, challenging the Roman assumption that divine favor is proven by worldly success. He argues that eve
- [Concerning the covetousness of Ninus, who was the first who made war on his neighbours, that he might rule more widely.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-vi.md): Augustine discusses the reign of Ninus, the first Assyrian king to expand his empire through war, citing the historian Justinus. He questions the morality of such conquests, equating them to great robbery, and notes the 
- [VII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-vii.md): Augustine argues that if earthly kingdoms like Assyria rose and fell without the aid of the gods, then the Roman empire's success cannot be attributed to them. He questions the fidelity and power of the gods, who either 
- [Chapter VIII: Which of the gods can the Romans suppose presided over the increase and preservation of their empire, when they have believed that even the care of single things could scarcely be committed to single gods?](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-viii.md): Augustine criticizes the Roman pantheon for its excessive specialization, arguing that no single god was entrusted with the overall oversight of the empire, as each deity was assigned trivial and specific functions. He c
- [Whether the great extent and long duration of the Roman empire should be ascribed to Jove, whom his worshippers believe to be the chief god.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-ix.md): Augustine questions whether the Roman Empire's greatness should be attributed to Jove, the chief god of the pagan pantheon. He notes that Varro believed Jove was worshipped even by monotheists under a different name, yet
- [Chapter X: The Absurdity of Assigning Multiple Gods to Different Parts of the World](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-x.md): Augustine critiques the pagan practice of assigning different gods to various parts of the world, such as Jove to the ether, Juno to the air, Neptune to the sea, and Pluto to the earth, pointing out the inconsistencies a
- [Concerning the many gods whom the pagan doctors defend as being one and the same Jove](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xi.md): Augustine critiques the pagan polytheistic system by arguing that many gods and goddesses are merely aspects or powers of a single god, Jupiter. He suggests that if all these deities are parts of Jupiter, then worshippin
- [XII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xii.md): Augustine critiques the pantheistic view that God is the soul of the world and the world is the body of God, arguing that such a belief leads to impious and irreverent consequences, such as trampling or killing a part of
- [XIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xiii.md): Augustine critiques the pagan belief that rational animals are parts of the one God, arguing that such a view leads to absurd and impious consequences, such as God being whipped or becoming sinful. He then questions why 
- [XIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xiv.md): Augustine critiques the Roman attribution of kingdom enlargement to the god Jove, arguing that if Victory is a goddess, she alone suffices for granting victory, making Jove unnecessary. He also questions the morality of 
- [Whether it is suitable for good men to wish to rule more widely](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xv.md): Augustine argues that good men do not rejoice in extended empire for its own sake, but only as a necessity to prevent the unjust from ruling over the righteous. He contends that true felicity lies in peaceful neighborly 
- [XVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xvi.md): Augustine questions why the Romans, who assigned separate gods to every thing and movement of the mind, placed the temple of Quiet (Quies) outside the Colline gate, suggesting that worshipping such a multitude of demons 
- [Chapter XVII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xvii.md): Augustine critiques the pagan worship of Victory as a separate goddess, arguing that if Jupiter is supreme, Victory should be subordinate to him. He contrasts this with the true God, who sends angels to grant victory acc
- [Chapter XVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xviii.md): Augustine critiques the Roman distinction between the goddesses Felicity and Fortune, arguing that if Felicity is always good, she alone should be worshipped, while Fortune's capriciousness undermines her divinity and th
- [XIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xix.md): Augustine criticizes the pagan worship of Fortuna Muliebris, noting the tradition that her statue spoke to Roman matrons. He argues that such phenomena are deceptions by malignant demons, contrasting the loquacious Fortu
- [Chapter XX: Concerning Virtue and Faith, Which the Pagans Have Honoured with Temples and Sacred Rites](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xx.md): Augustine critiques the pagan practice of deifying virtues like Virtue and Faith, arguing that they are gifts from God rather than independent deities. He questions why only certain virtues receive temples and altars, wh
- [Chapter XXI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxi.md): Augustine argues that the pagans should have recognized virtue and felicity as gifts of the one true God rather than as separate goddesses. He contends that if virtue and felicity are present, no other gods are needed, a
- [XXII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxii.md): Varro boasts of his knowledge of the worship due to the gods, arguing that knowing the specific powers and attributes of each god is essential for proper supplication, just as one must know the skills of a physician, smi
- [Concerning Felicity, whom the Romans, who venerate many gods, for a long time did not worship with divine honour, though she alone would have sufficed instead of all.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxiii.md): Augustine argues that if Felicity were truly a goddess, she alone should have been worshipped by the Romans, since all people desire happiness. He criticizes the Romans for neglecting Felicity while worshipping many less
- [XXIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxiv.md): Augustine examines the pagan defense that they worship divine gifts as gods, arguing that they name deities after the gifts they bestow (e.g., Bellona from war, Pecunia from money) while claiming not to worship the gifts
- [Concerning the One God Only to Be Worshipped](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxv.md): Augustine argues that the pagans, recognizing felicity as a divine gift, unknowingly pointed to the one true God who gives it. He urges them to reject the multitude of demons and worship this God alone, who is not Jupite
- [Of the scenic plays, the celebration of which the gods have exacted from their worshippers.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxvi.md): Augustine discusses the scandal of theatrical plays performed in honor of the pagan gods, which depict the gods committing shameful crimes. He recounts the story of Titus Latinius, who was compelled by dreams and divine 
- [Concerning the three kinds of gods about which the pontiff Scaevola has discoursed](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxvii.md): Scaevola distinguishes three kinds of gods: those of the poets, the philosophers, and the statesmen. He criticizes the poetic gods for their immoral stories and the philosophical gods for containing truths harmful to the
- [Whether the worship of the gods has been of service to the Romans in obtaining and extending the empire](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxviii.md): Augustine argues that the Roman gods, who delight in scandalous honors and theatrical plays, could not have granted the Romans their empire. He notes that the Greeks worshipped these gods even more elaborately yet did no
- [Of the falsity of the augury by which the strength and stability of the Roman empire was considered to be indicated](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxix.md): Augustine critiques the Roman augury that claimed Mars, Terminus, and Juventas would not yield even to Jove, arguing that historical events—such as defeats by the Gauls, Hannibal, and territorial concessions by Hadrian a
- [The Confessions of the Pagan Philosophers](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxx.md): Augustine uses Cicero's critique of superstition and the Stoic Balbus's distinction between religion and superstition to show that even pagan philosophers admitted the absurdity of their own gods. He argues that Christia
- [Concerning the opinions of Varro, who, while reprobating the popular belief, thought that their worship should be confined to one god, though he was unable to discover the true God.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxxi.md): Augustine examines Varro's views on Roman religion, noting that Varro privately doubted the popular polytheistic worship and believed in a single governing soul of the world, yet he publicly upheld traditional rites to a
- [Chapter XXXII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxxii.md): Augustine discusses how the princes of the nations, like the demons, deliberately perpetuated false religious beliefs among the people to maintain control and bind them more firmly to civil society. He cites Varro's obse
- [XXXIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxxiii.md): Augustine argues that the true God alone ordains the times of all kings and kingdoms, granting earthly kingdoms to both good and bad according to a hidden but perfectly known order. He distinguishes true felicity, which 
- [Concerning the kingdom of the Jews, which was founded by the one and true God, and preserved by Him as long as they remained in the true religion.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxxiv.md): Augustine contrasts the true worship of the one God by the Jewish people with the multitude of false gods worshipped by the Romans. He recounts how God multiplied, delivered, and preserved the Israelites without the need
- [Book V](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-book-v.md): Augustine discusses the doctrine of fate, refuting those who attribute the power and increase of the Roman empire to fate or false gods. He argues that God's prescience does not negate free will, and examines the virtues
- [I](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-i.md): Augustine argues that the greatness of the Roman empire is neither fortuitous nor determined by the stars, but is established by divine providence. He critiques those who attribute human affairs to fate or the position o
- [On the Difference in the Health of Twins](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-ii.md): Augustine examines the case of twins who fall ill simultaneously, contrasting the medical explanation of Hippocrates—based on shared parental constitution, environment, and habits—with the astrological fatalism of Posido
- [III](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-iii.md): Augustine critiques the argument of Nigidius the mathematician, who used a potter's wheel to explain differences in twins' fortunes based on celestial rotation. He argues that if such minute time intervals can cause sign
- [Concerning the twins Esau and Jacob, who were very unlike each other both in their character and actions](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-iv.md): Augustine uses the biblical example of the twin brothers Esau and Jacob to argue against astrological determinism. Despite being born nearly simultaneously, their lives, characters, and fortunes were radically different,
- [Chapter V](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-v.md): Augustine refutes astrological determinism by arguing that the simultaneous illness of twins, despite different birth times, disproves the claim that stars control human destinies. He exposes contradictions in astrologic
- [VI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-vi.md): Augustine discusses the absurdity of astrological determinism by examining the case of twins of different sexes. He argues that while celestial bodies may influence physical phenomena, they cannot determine human wills o
- [VII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-vii.md): Augustine critiques the practice of choosing specific days for actions like marriage, planting, or sowing, arguing that such choices imply a denial of astrological fate or divine providence. He points out the absurdity o
- [VIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-viii.md): Augustine discusses the concept of fate, distinguishing between those who attribute it to the position of the stars and those who see it as the entire chain of causes dependent on the will of God. He argues that the latt
- [IX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-ix.md): Augustine defends the compatibility of divine foreknowledge and human free will against Cicero's objections, arguing that God's infallible prescience does not negate voluntary human action, as our wills are included with
- [Chapter X](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-x.md): Augustine argues that divine foreknowledge does not negate human free will. He contends that God's prescience of human actions does not compel those actions; rather, humans sin or act rightly by their own will. He reject
- [Concerning the Universal Providence of God in the Laws of Which All Things Are Comprehended](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xi.md): Augustine affirms that the supreme and true God, with His Word and Holy Spirit, is the creator and governor of all things—souls, bodies, angels, humans, and even the smallest creatures. He argues that God's providence ex
- [By What Virtues the Ancient Romans Merited That the True God, Although They Did Not Worship Him, Should Enlarge Their Empire](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xii.md): Augustine examines the virtues of the ancient Romans—such as love of liberty, desire for glory, and ambition for domination—that God used to expand their empire, despite their worship of false gods. He contrasts the true
- [Concerning the Love of Praise](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xiii.md): Augustine discusses how the love of praise, though a vice, is often mistaken for a virtue because it restrains greater vices. He explains that God allowed the Western empire to arise, granting it to men who sought honor 
- [Concerning the eradication of the love of human praise, because all the glory of the righteous is in God](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xiv.md): Augustine argues that the desire for human praise must be resisted and subordinated to the love of righteousness and God. He contrasts the virtuous pursuit of divine glory with the Roman love of earthly glory, using bibl
- [Concerning the temporal reward which God granted to the virtues of the Romans](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xv.md): Augustine argues that God granted the Romans temporal glory and empire as a reward for their civic virtues—such as self-sacrifice, justice, and love of country—even though they did not worship the true God. He notes that
- [XVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xvi.md): Augustine contrasts the reward of the holy citizens of the celestial city with the earthly rewards of Rome, arguing that the eternal city offers true felicity as a gift from God, while Roman virtues serve as examples for
- [Chapter XVII: On the Profit of Roman Wars and the True Glory of the Heavenly City](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xvii.md): Augustine reflects on the futility of Roman conquests, arguing that the only difference between conqueror and conquered is the empty glory of victory. He suggests that if the Romans had extended citizenship and public we
- [Chapter XVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xviii.md): Augustine compares the heroic deeds of ancient Romans, performed for earthly glory and the terrestrial city, with the sacrifices Christians make for the eternal heavenly city. He argues that Roman acts—such as Brutus exe
- [Chapter XIX: True Glory vs. the Desire for Domination](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xix.md): Augustine distinguishes between true virtue, which is rooted in piety and the worship of the true God, and the desire for human glory or domination. He argues that only those with true piety possess genuine virtue, and t
- [Chapter XX: The Shame of Virtue Serving Human Glory](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xx.md): Augustine argues that it is as shameful for the virtues to serve human glory as it is for them to serve bodily pleasure. He critiques philosophers who place virtue itself as the highest good, yet still subject it to the 
- [XXI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxi.md): Augustine argues that the power to grant kingdoms and empires belongs solely to the true God, who distributes earthly dominion to both pious and impious alike according to His just and hidden will. He illustrates this by
- [XXII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxii.md): Augustine argues that the durations and outcomes of wars are determined by God's will, not by the favor of pagan gods. He cites various Roman wars—some brief, some protracted—to show that the length of conflict is not a 
- [Concerning the war in which Radagaisus, king of the Goths, a worshipper of demons, was conquered in one day, with all his mighty forces](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxiii.md): Augustine recounts the recent miraculous defeat of the Gothic king Radagaisus, a pagan who sacrificed to demons, by the Christian Romans under divine providence. He contrasts the pagans' boastful expectations that Radaga
- [XXIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxiv.md): Augustine discusses the true happiness of Christian emperors, arguing that it does not consist in long reigns, peaceful deaths, or military victories—blessings even demon-worshippers may receive—but in ruling justly, hum
- [XXV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxv.md): Augustine discusses the prosperity granted by God to the Christian Emperor Constantine, contrasting it with the fate of other emperors to show that earthly rewards are not the ultimate goal of Christian faith, which is d
- [XXVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxvi.md): Augustine discusses the faith and piety of Emperor Theodosius, highlighting his Christian humility, his reliance on divine prophecy over pagan superstition, his merciful treatment of enemies, and his acts of penance. He 
- [Book VI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-book-vi.md): Augustine shifts his argument from those who worship the gods for temporal advantages to those who seek eternal life through them. He introduces Varro's division of theology into three kinds—mythical, natural, and civil—
- [I](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-i.md): Augustine begins to refute those who argue that the pagan gods should be worshipped not for temporal benefits but for eternal life after death. He points out the absurdity of seeking eternal life from gods who are assign
- [What we are to believe that Varro thought concerning the gods of the nations](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-ii.md): Augustine praises Marcus Varro as the most learned and acute investigator of pagan religious rites, noting that despite his vast knowledge and writings on divine and human things, Varro's works reveal the absurdity and s
- [Varro's Distribution of His Work on Human and Divine Antiquities](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-iii.md): This chapter details Varro's systematic organization of his forty-one books on antiquities, divided into twenty-five books on human affairs and sixteen on divine matters. It explains his fourfold classification of human 
- [Chapter IV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-iv.md): Augustine analyzes Varro's arrangement of his books, arguing that by placing human things before divine things, Varro implicitly admits that the Roman gods are human inventions rather than true divine nature. Augustine c
- [V](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-v.md): Augustine examines Varro's threefold classification of theology: mythical (fabulous), natural (physical), and civil. He critiques the civil theology as being based on human institutions rather than nature, and highlights
- [Concerning the Mythic, Fabulous, and Civil Theology Against Varro](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-vi.md): Augustine critiques Varro's tripartite division of theology into mythic (fabulous), natural (philosophical), and civil (political). He argues that the civil theology is contaminated by the fabulous, as both are rooted in
- [VII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-vii.md): Augustine argues that the civil theology is not distinct from the fabulous, theatrical theology, as both share the same base depictions of the gods. He points out that the same images, ages, and sexes appear in temples a
- [Chapter VIII: Concerning the interpretations, consisting of natural explanations, which the pagan teachers attempt to show for their gods.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-viii.md): Augustine critiques pagan attempts to interpret their gods through natural or physical explanations, arguing that such interpretations confuse nature with God. He points out that the mother of the gods is said to be the 
- [IX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-ix.md): Augustine continues his critique of Roman civil theology, focusing on the absurd and shameful specialization of pagan gods who preside over every minute aspect of human life, from conception to death, and particularly th
- [X](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-x.md): Augustine examines the critique of Roman civil theology by Annaeus Seneca, who, though a Stoic philosopher and senator, censured the urban and civil religion more vehemently than Varro had criticized the fabulous theolog
- [XI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xi.md): Seneca criticizes Jewish religious practices, particularly the Sabbath, as wasteful and superstitious, yet acknowledges the widespread influence of Jewish customs. He refrains from mentioning Christians, and Augustine re
- [That when once the vanity of the gods of the nations has been exposed, it cannot be doubted that they are unable to bestow eternal life on anyone, when they cannot afford help even with respect to the things of this temporal life.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xii.md): Augustine concludes that the civil theology cannot grant eternal life because it cannot even grant true happiness, which is a gift of God alone. He distinguishes eternal life as endlessly happy life, contrasting it with 
- [Book VII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-book-vii.md): Augustine argues that eternal life cannot be attained through the worship of the select gods of the civil theology, such as Janus, Jupiter, and Saturn. He critiques Varro's attempts to interpret pagan myths as natural al
- [I](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-i.md): Augustine continues his argument against the civil theology, questioning whether the select gods, as defined by Varro, can grant eternal life. He refutes the notion that selection implies rejection of other gods, using a
- [II](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-ii.md): Augustine examines Varro's list of twenty select gods (twelve male, eight female) and questions their selection, arguing that they are assigned to the same trivial functions as the plebeian gods, such as conception and m
- [Chapter III: How there is no reason which can be shown for the selection of certain gods, when the administration of more exalted offices is assigned to many inferior gods.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-iii.md): Augustine critiques the arbitrary selection of certain pagan gods as 'select' while more important functions like life and sensation are assigned to obscure deities. He argues that the selection is based on popular fame 
- [Chapter IV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-iv.md): Augustine contrasts the treatment of the inferior gods, who are protected by obscurity from infamy, with the select gods, who are celebrated for crimes and shameful acts. He uses Janus as an example of a relatively innoc
- [Concerning the more secret doctrine of the pagans, and concerning the physical interpretations](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-v.md): Augustine critiques Varro's physical interpretations of pagan religion, arguing that while Varro's natural theology reaches the rational soul, it fails to reach the true God who created the soul. He contrasts the ancient
- [Concerning the opinion of Varro, that God is the soul of the world, which nevertheless, in its various parts, has many souls whose nature is divine.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-vi.md): Varro proposes that God is the soul of the world, and the world itself is God, but he introduces many divine souls by dividing the world into heaven and earth, each subdivided into ether, air, water, and land, all filled
- [VII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-vii.md): Augustine critiques the Roman distinction between Janus and Terminus as separate deities, arguing that the world (Janus) encompasses both beginnings and ends, and that Terminus should not be excluded from the select gods
- [Chapter VIII: The Absurdity of Janus Worship](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-viii.md): Augustine critiques the pagan interpretation of Janus as a two-faced or four-faced god, arguing that the attempts to link Janus to the world through the human mouth or the four quarters of the earth are absurd and vain. 
- [IX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-ix.md): Augustine critiques the Roman theological hierarchy, questioning why Janus is considered superior to Jupiter if Jupiter governs the efficient causes of all things. He argues that the pagan gods are inconsistently defined
- [Whether the distinction between Janus and Jupiter is a proper one](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-x.md): Augustine questions the polytheistic distinction between Janus and Jupiter, arguing that if both represent the world or different powers of a single deity, then the multiplication of gods is logically inconsistent. He po
- [Concerning the Surnames of Jupiter](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xi.md): Augustine critiques the polytheistic practice of assigning multiple surnames to Jupiter, arguing that it is absurd to attribute both great and trivial functions to a single god, and that such naming reveals the inconsist
- [XII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xii.md): Augustine critiques the pagan theology that names Jupiter 'Pecunia' (Money), arguing that this debases the king of the gods by associating him with avarice rather than wisdom or virtue. He contrasts true riches—wisdom an
- [XIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xiii.md): Augustine argues that the pagan gods Saturn and Genius are ultimately identified with Jupiter, showing that the multiplicity of gods is merely a nominal distinction without real truth. He critiques the logic that leads t
- [XIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xiv.md): Augustine critiques the pagan gods Mercury and Mars, arguing that they are not divine but rather personifications of human activities—speech and war—and that such attributions are absurd and lead to worship of demons rat
- [Concerning certain stars which the pagans have called by the names of their gods](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xv.md): Augustine critiques the pagan practice of naming stars after their gods, pointing out inconsistencies and absurdities in their mythology. He questions why Jupiter's star is less brilliant than Venus's, why Saturn is plac
- [Concerning Apollo and Diana, and the other select gods whom they would have to be parts of the world](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xvi.md): Augustine critiques the pagan identification of select gods with parts of the physical world, showing how they inconsistently assign multiple identities to the same deity and reduce divine beings to cosmic elements.
- [XVII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xvii.md): Augustine critiques Varro's ambiguous and uncertain treatment of the Roman gods, showing that even Varro himself doubted his own writings on both certain and uncertain gods, and could not affirm with certainty the truths
- [Chapter XVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xviii.md): Augustine argues that the pagan gods were originally men, and that their rites and myths were invented based on their human characteristics and actions, later embellished by poets and exploited by demons. He criticizes V
- [Chapter XIX: Concerning the interpretations which compose the reason of the worship of Saturn](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xix.md): Augustine critiques Varro's allegorical interpretations of the pagan god Saturn, showing how they reduce divine mysteries to mere agricultural and natural processes, and fail to lead to the true, incorporeal, and eternal
- [Concerning the rites of Eleusinian Ceres](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xx.md): Augustine examines Varro's interpretation of the Eleusinian mysteries of Ceres, which reduce the sacred rites to allegories of agricultural fertility and the seasonal cycle of seed growth and decay. He critiques this nat
- [Concerning the shamefulness of the rites which are celebrated in honour of Liber](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxi.md): Augustine condemns the obscene rites of Liber, describing how in Italy the god was honored by the public worship of male genitalia, carried on a cart through crossroads and into the city, and how in Lavinium a month-long
- [Concerning Neptune, and Salacia, and Venilia](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxii.md): Augustine critiques the pagan theology of Neptune, Salacia, and Venilia, arguing that the multiplication of deities for natural phenomena like waves stems from a lust for demons rather than true worship. He challenges Va
- [Chapter XXIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxiii.md): Augustine critiques Varro's natural theology, which posits that the soul of the world permeates the earth and makes it a goddess (Tellus). He questions the logical inconsistencies in dividing the earth into multiple deit
- [Concerning the surnames of Tellus and their significations](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxiv.md): Augustine critiques the pagan multiplication of gods from the single earth, arguing that multiple surnames for one goddess should not imply multiple deities. He examines Varro's interpretation of the Great Mother's attri
- [XXV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxv.md): Augustine critiques the pagan interpretation of the myth of Atys, as set forth by the Greek sages and Porphyry, who allegorize Atys' castration as the falling of spring flowers before fruit. He contrasts this with Varro'
- [Concerning the Abomination of the Sacred Rites of the Great Mother](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxvi.md): Augustine condemns the sacred rites of the Great Mother, particularly the practice of consecrating effeminates (mutilated men) in her worship, which he describes as a monstrous and cruel abomination surpassing even the l
- [XXVII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxvii.md): Augustine argues that the so-called 'select gods' of pagan theology are merely famous for their shameful deeds, not their merits, and were likely men, as both poetry and history suggest. He criticizes physical theologian
- [XXVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxviii.md): Augustine critiques Varro's attempt to systematize pagan theology by assigning male gods to heaven and female gods to earth, showing the inconsistency of this scheme with examples like Minerva, Neptune, and Dis. He argue
- [XXIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxix.md): Augustine argues that all attributes which pagan physical theologists assign to the world and its parts should instead be ascribed to the one true God, who created heaven, earth, and every soul. He emphasizes that worshi
- [How Piety Distinguishes the Creator from the Creatures](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxx.md): Augustine contrasts the worship of the one true God with the pagan practice of distributing divine attributes among many false gods, as exemplified by Varro's physical interpretations. He affirms that all natural and pro
- [Chapter XXXI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxxi.md): Augustine reflects on the special benefits God grants to the followers of truth beyond His general providence, emphasizing the gift of the Word made flesh, the unique sacrifice of Christ for purification from sin, and th
- [That at no time in the past was the mystery of Christ’s redemption awanting, but was at all times declared, though in various forms.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxxii.md): Augustine argues that the mystery of Christ's redemption has been present and declared throughout all ages, from the beginning of the human race, through various signs and sacraments. The Hebrew people were gathered into
- [That Only Through the Christian Religion Could the Deceit of Malign Spirits Have Been Manifested](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxxiii.md): Augustine argues that only the Christian religion has exposed the deceit of malign spirits who pose as gods, using the names of dead souls or mundane creatures to demand worship. He criticizes Varro's attempts to justify
- [Concerning the books of Numa Pompilius, which the senate ordered to be burned, in order that the causes of sacred rites therein assigned should not become known.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxxiv.md): Augustine discusses the discovery of Numa Pompilius's books containing the secret causes of Roman sacred rites. The senate, after reading some of the causes, ordered the books burned to prevent the knowledge of these sha
- [XXXV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxxv.md): Augustine discusses Numa Pompilius's use of hydromancy, a form of divination involving water and necromancy, to learn sacred rites and their hidden causes. He contrasts this demonic deception with true worship of God, no
- [Book VIII: Natural Theology and the Platonists](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-book-viii.md): Augustine turns to natural theology, engaging primarily with the Platonists, whom he considers the closest philosophical approximation to Christian truth. He refutes Apuleius and others who argue that demons serve as med
- [I](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-i.md): Augustine introduces the need to engage with philosophers, particularly the Platonists, on natural theology. He distinguishes this from fabulous and civil theology, and sets the stage for a discussion on the worship of t
- [Concerning the two schools of philosophers, that is, the Italic and Ionic, and their founders](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-ii.md): Augustine traces the origins of Greek philosophy, distinguishing the Italic school founded by Pythagoras and the Ionic school founded by Thales of Miletus. He outlines the succession of philosophers from Thales through A
- [Of the Socratic philosophy](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-iii.md): Socrates redirected philosophy from natural phenomena to moral correction and the pursuit of the blessed life. He believed that divine causes could only be comprehended by a purified mind, leading him to emphasize good m
- [Concerning Plato, the chief among the disciples of Socrates, and his threefold division of philosophy](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-iv.md): This chapter discusses Plato's preeminence among Socrates' disciples, his extensive travels to Egypt and Italy to master various philosophies, and his synthesis of Socratic and Pythagorean thought. It details Plato's thr
- [V](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-v.md): Augustine argues that among all philosophers, the Platonists come closest to Christian truth because they recognize God as the author of all things, the source of truth, and the giver of blessedness. He dismisses the fab
- [Concerning the meaning of the Platonists in that part of philosophy called physical](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-vi.md): Augustine explains how the Platonists, through their philosophical inquiry, recognized that no material body is God and that all changeable things must be created by an unchangeable, simple, and supreme Being. They disti
- [VII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-vii.md): Augustine compares the Platonists favorably to other philosophical schools, particularly the Epicureans and Stoics, in the realm of rational philosophy (logic). He criticizes the Epicureans and Stoics for relying on bodi
- [VIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-viii.md): Augustine discusses the Platonists' preeminence in moral philosophy, contrasting their view of the chief good (enjoyment of God) with other philosophical schools that locate the final good in the body, mind, or both. He 
- [Concerning that philosophy which has come nearest to the Christian faith](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-ix.md): Augustine discusses the philosophers, particularly the Platonists, who have come closest to Christian truth by recognizing God as the maker of all things, the light of knowledge, and the good for action. He prefers these
- [Chapter X](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-x.md): Augustine argues that the Christian religion surpasses all philosophical systems, particularly Platonism, because it provides true knowledge of God as the creator, the source of truth, and the fountain of felicity. He wa
- [How Plato has been able to approach so nearly to Christian knowledge](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xi.md): Augustine explores how Plato's philosophical insights about God resemble Christian truth, considering whether Plato encountered Hebrew scriptures through Jeremiah or Egyptian travels. He concludes that Plato was born aft
- [XII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xii.md): Augustine explains why he chose the Platonists for discussion, noting their superior understanding of the one true God yet criticizing their continued practice of worshipping many gods. He traces the Platonic school's hi
- [XIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xiii.md): Augustine examines Plato's definition of the gods as entirely good and friends of virtue, contrasting this with the gods' demand for scandalous scenic plays. He argues that such demands prove the gods are bad, not good, 
- [XIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xiv.md): Augustine critiques the Platonic tripartite division of rational souls into gods, demons, and men, focusing on the demons' middle status and their delight in theatrical obscenities. He questions Plato's consistency in ba
- [XV That the demons are not better than men because of their aerial bodies, or on account of their superior place of abode.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xv.md): Augustine argues that demons are not superior to humans simply because they possess aerial bodies or inhabit a higher element (the air). He compares humans to animals—eagles, dogs, lions—which surpass us in physical abil
- [What Apuleius the Platonist thought concerning the manners and actions of demons](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xvi.md): Augustine examines Apuleius's definition of demons, noting their animal nature, rational mind, passive soul, aerial body, and eternal duration. He argues that these qualities do not make demons worthy of worship, as they
- [Whether it is proper that men should worship those spirits from whose vices it is necessary that they be freed](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xvii.md): Augustine argues against worshipping demons, pointing out that demons are subject to passions and perturbations like anger, jealousy, and love of gifts, whereas true religion calls for freedom from such vices. He contras
- [XVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xviii.md): Augustine critiques the pagan belief that demons serve as necessary intermediaries between humans and the gods, arguing that this system is absurd because it requires chaste and innocent people to rely on wicked demons f
- [XIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xix.md): Augustine condemns magic arts as impious and dependent on malign spirits, arguing that their prohibition by Roman laws and the defense of Apuleius against such charges demonstrate their pernicious nature. He contrasts th
- [Chapter XX: The Absurdity of Demonic Mediation](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xx.md): Augustine argues against the pagan claim that demons are necessary intermediaries between gods and men because gods do not interact with humans. He highlights the moral absurdity: gods would rather associate with arrogan
- [Chapter XXI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxi.md): Augustine critiques the Platonic notion that ethereal gods require aerial demons as messengers to know human affairs, arguing that this implies the gods are either ignorant, deceived, or complicit in evil. He presents fo
- [XXII That we must, notwithstanding the opinion of Apuleius, reject the worship of demons](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxii.md): Augustine argues against the Platonic view, represented by Apuleius, that demons serve as benevolent intermediaries between gods and men. He asserts that demons are actually malicious, proud, envious, and deceitful spiri
- [XXIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxiii.md): Augustine examines the views of Hermes Trismegistus on idolatry, noting that while Hermes correctly acknowledges the one true God, he errs by asserting that men can make gods by inviting spirits into statues. Augustine c
- [Chapter XXIV: Hermes' Confession of the Error of Making Gods](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxiv.md): Augustine analyzes Hermes Trismegistus's confession that the art of making gods originated from the great error, incredulity, and neglect of divine worship by his forefathers. He contrasts Hermes' grief over the future d
- [Concerning those things which may be common to the holy angels and to men](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxv.md): Augustine argues that fellowship with the holy angels is not a matter of physical proximity but of moral and spiritual likeness, achieved through a good will and faith in the same God. He rejects the idea of seeking medi
- [XXVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxvi.md): Augustine argues that all pagan religion is fundamentally the worship of dead men, using Hermes Trismegistus's own testimony to prove that the Egyptian gods were once mortal. He contrasts pagan tombs and temples with Chr
- [XXVII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxvii.md): Augustine explains that Christians honor martyrs not as gods but as holy witnesses, offering sacrifices only to God at their tombs. He contrasts this with pagan practices of deifying dead humans and celebrating their cri
- [Book IX: The Mediation of Demons and the Unique Mediation of Christ](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-book-ix.md): Augustine continues his critique of the Platonist distinction between good and evil demons, arguing that all demons are wicked spirits. He refutes the idea that demons can serve as mediators between gods and men, showing
- [I](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-i.md): Augustine summarizes the debate about whether there are good and bad gods, contrasting those who include demons under the name 'gods' with Platonists who distinguish good gods from evil demons. He reiterates the Platonis
- [Whether Among the Demons There Are Any Good Spirits](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-ii.md): Augustine continues his critique of the Platonist hierarchy of gods and demons, focusing on the common belief that some demons are good. He warns that trusting in any demonic mediation, even supposedly good demons, leads
- [III](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-iii.md): Augustine examines Apuleius's description of demons, noting that while Apuleius attributes reason to them, he fails to credit them with virtue. Instead, he depicts their minds as agitated by passions like human emotions,
- [Chapter IV: The Opinion of the Peripatetics and Stoics About Mental Emotions](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-iv.md): Augustine examines the Stoic and Peripatetic views on mental passions, arguing that the disagreement is largely verbal rather than substantive. He recounts a story from Aulus Gellius about a Stoic philosopher who paled w
- [That the passions which assail the souls of Christians do not seduce them to vice, but exercise their virtue](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-v.md): Augustine discusses the Christian view of the passions (anger, sadness, fear, compassion), arguing that they are not inherently vicious but can be directed to righteous ends when the mind is subject to God. He contrasts 
- [Of the passions which, according to Apuleius, agitate the demons who are supposed by him to mediate between gods and men.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-vi.md): Augustine critiques the Platonist view, as expressed by Apuleius, that demons serve as mediators between gods and men despite being subject to violent passions. He argues that if the rational mind of demons is tossed by 
- [VII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-vii.md): Augustine examines the Platonist Apuleius's distinction between gods and demons, arguing that the poets' fictions about divine beings actually describe demons, not gods, as demons are subject to violent emotions and part
- [VIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-viii.md): Augustine critiques Apuleius' definition of demons as aerial, eternal beings with passions, arguing that Apuleius fails to distinguish good demons from bad, as he attributes no unique good quality to them and only shares
- [IX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-ix.md): Augustine argues that demons cannot serve as mediators between gods and men because they share a vicious soul with men and an eternal body with gods, inverting the proper order where the soul should rule and the body ser
- [Chapter X: Plotinus on the Wretchedness of Demons Compared to Men](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-x.md): Augustine examines Plotinus's view that human souls are less wretched than demons because humans have mortal bodies that can end their misery through death, while demons are eternally bound to a body and a miserable soul
- [Of the opinion of the Platonists, that the souls of men become demons when disembodied.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xi.md): Augustine critiques the Platonist view, as expressed by Varro, that human souls become demons after death—good souls becoming Lares, bad souls becoming Lemures or Larvae, and uncertain ones becoming Manes. He argues this
- [Of the three opposite qualities by which the Platonists distinguish between the nature of men and that of demons](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xii.md): Augustine examines the Platonist distinction between gods and men, focusing on three contrasting qualities: sublimity of abode, perpetuity of life, and perfection of nature. He notes that the Platonist Apuleius describes
- [Chapter XIII: How the Demons Can Mediate Between Gods and Men if They Have Nothing in Common with Both](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xiii.md): Augustine critiques the Platonic view that demons serve as mediators between gods and men. He argues that if demons are rational, they must be either blessed or miserable, and since they are eternal but subject to passio
- [XIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xiv.md): Augustine examines the question of whether mortal humans can attain true blessedness, contrasting those who deny it with those who claim wisdom brings blessedness even in mortal life. He argues that if wise mortals are t
- [Of the man Christ Jesus, the Mediator between God and men](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xv.md): Augustine argues that all mortal men are miserable and require a mediator who is both man and God to bring them from mortal misery to blessed immortality. He contrasts the good Mediator, Jesus Christ, who became mortal t
- [XVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xvi.md): Augustine critiques the Platonist claim that celestial gods avoid contact with men to avoid pollution, arguing that if demons mediate without being polluted, then gods could do the same, and if demons are polluted, they 
- [That to obtain the blessed life, which consists in partaking of the supreme good, man needs such mediation as is furnished not by a demon, but by Christ alone.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xvii.md): Augustine argues that the blessed life requires a mediator who can bridge the gap between the immortal, pure God and mortal, impure humanity. He rejects the idea that demons, with their diseased souls, can serve as media
- [That the deceitful demons, while promising to conduct men to God by their intercession, mean to turn them from the path of truth.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xviii.md): Augustine argues that demons, as false mediators, do not lead men to God but instead hinder spiritual progress. He contrasts the bodily, hierarchical way of pagan religion—where demons are placed between gods and men—wit
- [Chapter XIX: That even among their own worshippers the name 'demon' has never a good signification](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xix.md): Augustine argues that the term 'demon' universally carries a negative connotation, even among pagans, and contrasts this with the Christian use of 'angel' for good spirits. He notes that Platonists call good spirits 'goo
- [Of the kind of knowledge which puffs up the demons](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xx.md): Augustine discusses the origin of the term 'demon' from a Greek word meaning knowledge, and contrasts the demons' knowledge without charity—which puffs up—with the humility of God in Christ. He explains that the demons, 
- [Chapter XXI: The Lord's Revelation to the Demons](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxi.md): Augustine discusses how Christ revealed Himself to the demons, not through eternal life or unchangeable light, but through temporal effects of His power and mysterious presence. The demons recognized Him and feared His p
- [XXII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxii.md): Augustine contrasts the knowledge of holy angels with that of demons. The angels, though aware of material and temporal things, despise such knowledge in comparison to the love of God and the contemplation of eternal, im
- [XXIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxiii.md): Augustine argues that the name 'god' is falsely applied to pagan deities, while Scripture rightly applies it to holy angels and righteous men. He contends that the Platonists' distinction between gods and demons is merel
- [Book X: True Worship and the Way to Blessedness](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-book-x.md): Augustine argues that true happiness and blessedness come only through worship of the one true God, not through the worship of demons or many gods. He distinguishes between the service due to God alone (λατρεία) and othe
- [Chapter I](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-i.md): Augustine examines the precise nature of worship due to God alone, distinguishing the unique service (λατρεία) owed to the Creator from the general honors paid to creatures, and argues that even the Platonists, who right
- [The Opinion of Plotinus the Platonist Regarding Enlightenment from Above](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-ii.md): Augustine discusses the Platonist philosopher Plotinus, who agrees with Christian teaching that all rational souls, including those of heavenly spirits, derive their blessedness and light from a single divine source—God,
- [III](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-iii.md): Augustine argues that the Platonists, despite knowing something of the Creator, have misunderstood true worship by giving divine honor to angels. He explains that true worship—latria—is due to God alone, and that our hap
- [That Sacrifice Is Due to the True God Only](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-iv.md): Augustine argues that sacrifice is due to God alone, not to any human or created being. He points to the ancient practice of sacrifice as worship of God, citing the biblical example of Cain and Abel to illustrate that Go
- [V](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-v.md): Augustine explains that God does not require animal sacrifices for His own benefit, but rather instituted them as visible signs of the invisible sacrifice of a contrite heart and righteous living. He argues that true sac
- [Of the true and perfect sacrifice](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-vi.md): Augustine defines true sacrifice as every work done for the sake of union with God, emphasizing that mercy shown to men is only a sacrifice if done for God's sake. He explains that man himself, consecrated to God and dyi
- [Of the love of the holy angels, which prompts them to desire that we worship the one true God, and not themselves](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-vii.md): Augustine explains that the holy angels, though blessed and immortal, do not desire worship for themselves but direct all sacrifice to the one true God. They share with humanity the common citizenship of the City of God,
- [Chapter VIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-viii.md): Augustine recounts the ancient miracles God performed through the ministry of angels to confirm His promises to Abraham, including the birth of Isaac to barren Sarah, the divine fire at Abraham's sacrifice, the destructi
- [IX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-ix.md): Augustine discusses the illicit arts associated with demonolatry, including magic, necromancy, and theurgy. He critiques the Platonist Porphyry for vacillating between condemning and endorsing theurgy, noting that Porphy
- [X](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-x.md): Augustine critiques theurgy, arguing that it is a delusive practice involving the invocation of demons, as even the Platonist Porphyry admits that the gods are subjected to passions and perturbations by such rites. He co
- [Of Porphyry's Epistle to Anebo](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xi.md): Augustine examines Porphyry's letter to Anebo the Egyptian, in which Porphyry, adopting the guise of an inquirer, exposes the absurdities and deceptions of pagan demonology and magical practices. Porphyry questions how s
- [Of the miracles wrought by the true God through the ministry of the holy angels](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xii.md): Augustine argues that miraculous works not directed to the worship of the one true God are the deceptions of wicked spirits, while all true miracles—whether performed by angels or other means—serve to commend the worship
- [Of the invisible God, who has often made Himself visible, not as He really is, but as the beholders could bear the sight](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xiii.md): Augustine explains that God, though invisible in His own nature, has often appeared visibly to the patriarchs in forms suited to human capacity. He distinguishes between the divine essence and the visible form through wh
- [XIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xiv.md): Augustine argues that the one God should be worshipped not only for eternal blessings but also for temporal prosperity, because all things are governed by divine providence. He compares the education of the human race to
- [Of the ministry of the holy angels, by which they fulfil the providence of God.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xv.md): Augustine explains how Divine Providence uses the ministry of holy angels to deliver the law and reveal God's will. God Himself appears not in His own invisible substance but through created signs and human speech, while
- [XVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xvi.md): Augustine argues that true blessedness and eternal life come from worshiping the one God, not from angels or demons who demand sacrifice for themselves. He contrasts the miracles of the true God with those of pagan gods 
- [Concerning the ark of the covenant, and the miraculous signs whereby God authenticated the law and the promise](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xvii.md): Augustine discusses the Ark of the Covenant as the depository of God's law, given through angels, and the miraculous signs that accompanied it—such as the cloud and fire guiding Israel, the parting of the Jordan, the fal
- [Chapter XVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xviii.md): Augustine defends the credibility of biblical miracles against pagan skeptics, arguing that if pagans accept miraculous accounts from their own histories and theurgic texts, they should also accept the miracles recorded 
- [On the reasonableness of offering, as the true religion teaches, a visible sacrifice to the one true and invisible God](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xix.md): Augustine argues that visible sacrifices are signs of invisible sacrifices of the heart, and therefore should be offered only to the one true God, not to angels or demons. He cites biblical examples where angels and holy
- [Of the supreme and true sacrifice which was effected by the Mediator between God and men](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xx.md): Augustine explains that Christ, the true Mediator, is both the priest and the sacrifice, offering Himself in the form of a servant. He emphasizes that sacrifice should not be rendered to any creature, and that the Church
- [Of the power delegated to demons for the trial and glorification of the saints, who conquer not by propitiating the spirits of the air, but by abiding in God.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxi.md): Augustine discusses how demons are allowed, at appointed times, to persecute the Church and test the saints, but this persecution ultimately benefits the Church by producing martyrs. He contrasts the Christian understand
- [Whence the saints derive power against demons and true purification of heart](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxii.md): Augustine explains that saints derive power against demons through true piety, not by propitiating them but by exorcising them and praying to God. The devil can only conquer those in league with sin, and is conquered in 
- [XXIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxiii.md): Augustine critiques the Platonist view of purification, citing Porphyry's assertion that sacrifices to sun and moon cannot purify the soul, and that only 'principles'—understood as God the Father and God the Son—can. He 
- [Of the one only true principle which alone purifies and renews human nature](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxiv.md): Augustine argues that there is only one true principle of purification, which is Christ, the Word made flesh. He contrasts this with the Platonists and Porphyry, who erroneously speak of multiple principles and refuse to
- [XXV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxv.md): Augustine explains that all saints, both before and under the law, were justified by faith in the mystery of Christ's incarnation. He uses Psalm 73 to illustrate the distinction between the Old and New Testaments, showin
- [Of Porphyry’s weakness in wavering between the confession of the true God and the worship of demons](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxvi.md): Augustine critiques Porphyry for failing to fully condemn polytheistic worship despite recognizing the distinction between angels who declare God's will and those involved in theurgy. He argues that the true angels desir
- [XXVII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxvii.md): Augustine contrasts the errors of Porphyry and Apuleius regarding demons and theurgy, arguing that Christ alone offers true purification of the whole person—mind, spirit, and body—and that theurgic practices, promoted by
- [XXVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxviii.md): Augustine criticizes Porphyry for failing to recognize Christ as the true wisdom and virtue of God, arguing that Porphyry's pride in vain science leads him to reject Christ's humility. He contrasts the futile theurgic ar
- [Of the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ, which the Platonists in their impiety blush to acknowledge](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxix.md): Augustine addresses the Platonists, acknowledging that they have some understanding of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, but they refuse to accept the incarnation of the Son of God. He argues that the incarnation is the 
- [Porphyry's Emendations of Platonism on the Soul's Return](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxx.md): Augustine examines Porphyry's modifications to Platonic doctrine, particularly the rejection of the transmigration of souls into beasts and the cyclical return of souls to bodies. He contrasts Porphyry's view that purifi
- [XXXI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxxi.md): Augustine refutes the Platonist argument that the human soul is co-eternal with God, arguing that the soul is created and had a beginning. He uses Plato's own statements about the world and the gods having a beginning bu
- [XXXII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-i-xxxii.md): Augustine discusses the universal way of the soul's deliverance, which Porphyry sought but did not find, and which is only revealed through the grace of Christ. He argues that this way, the Christian religion, is the sol
- [Book XI: The Origin of the Two Cities](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-book-xi.md): Augustine begins the second part of his work, focusing on the origin, history, and destinies of the earthly and heavenly cities. He explains that the two cities were formed by the separation of good and bad angels, and d
- [Of this part of the work, wherein we begin to explain the origin and end of the two cities](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-i.md): Augustine introduces the concept of the City of God, citing scriptural testimonies to its divine foundation, and contrasts it with the earthly city whose citizens prefer false gods. He outlines his plan to discuss the or
- [Of the knowledge of God, to which no man can attain save through the Mediator between God and men, the man Christ Jesus.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ii.md): Augustine explains that true knowledge of God is unattainable through sensory or imaginative means; it requires the mind's ascent beyond all mutable creation to the unchangeable divine substance. This ascent is impossibl
- [Of the authority of the canonical Scriptures composed by the Divine Spirit](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iii.md): Augustine discusses the paramount authority of canonical Scripture, which was produced by the Divine Spirit through prophets, Christ, and apostles. He explains that for knowledge beyond our own senses, we must rely on tr
- [Chapter IV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iv.md): Augustine argues that the world was created by God in time, not from eternity, and that this does not imply a change in God's eternal will. He refutes those who claim the world has a creational but not temporal beginning
- [V](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-v.md): Augustine addresses those who accept God as Creator but question why the world was created at a particular time rather than earlier. He draws a parallel with questions about why the world was placed in a particular locat
- [That the world and time had both one beginning, and the one did not anticipate the other](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vi.md): Augustine argues that the world was created not in time but simultaneously with time, since time requires change and motion, which began with creation. He references the six days of creation and the seventh day of rest, 
- [Of the nature of the first days, which are said to have had morning and evening, before there was a sun](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vii.md): Augustine reflects on the nature of the first three days of creation before the sun was made, interpreting the light of the first day as either a material light or a symbol of the holy city of angels and blessed spirits.
- [What we are to understand of God’s resting on the seventh day, after the six days’ work](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-viii.md): Augustine explains that God's rest on the seventh day is not due to fatigue but signifies the eternal rest of those who rest in God. He uses figurative language to show that the phrase 'God rested' means that believers, 
- [What the Scriptures Teach Us to Believe Concerning the Creation of the Angels](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ix.md): Augustine examines the biblical account of creation to determine when the angels were created. He argues that the angels are implicitly included in the 'light' created on the first day, and that they were created as part
- [Of the Simple and Unchangeable Trinity](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-x.md): Augustine explores the nature of the simple and unchangeable Trinity—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—as one God, arguing that in God alone substance and quality are identical, unlike created things which can lose what they 
- [Whether the angels that fell partook of the blessedness which the holy angels have always enjoyed from the time of their creation](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xi.md): Augustine examines whether the fallen angels ever shared in the same blessedness as the holy angels. He argues that the good angels were created as light and enlightened to live wisely and blessedly, while the evil angel
- [Chapter XII: A Comparison of the Blessedness of the Righteous and Our First Parents in Paradise](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xii.md): Augustine compares the blessedness of the righteous who have not yet received their divine reward with that of Adam and Eve in Paradise before the Fall. He argues that while the first parents enjoyed greater present comf
- [XIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiii.md): Augustine explores the state of the angels before the fall, arguing that the good angels were assured of their eternal blessedness after the fall of the evil angels, while the fallen angels never enjoyed such certainty. 
- [XIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiv.md): Augustine analyzes the Lord's statement about the devil not abiding in the truth because the truth was not in him, explaining the unusual phrasing as a cause-and-effect reversal similar to a psalm where the effect demons
- [XV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xv.md): Augustine clarifies the meaning of John's statement that 'the devil sinneth from the beginning,' arguing that it refers to the beginning of the devil's sin, not his creation. He cites prophetic passages from Isaiah, Ezek
- [Of the ranks and differences of the creatures, estimated by their utility, or according to the natural gradations of being](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvi.md): Augustine discusses the hierarchical order of creation based on nature (life, sensation, intelligence, immortality) and contrasts it with human valuations based on utility and desire. He emphasizes that rational natures 
- [That the flaw of wickedness is not nature, but contrary to nature, and has its origin, not in the Creator, but in the will.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvii.md): Augustine argues that wickedness is not a natural flaw but a defect of the will, contrary to nature. He explains that even the devil was created good by God, but became wicked through his own will. God, as the supremely 
- [Of the Beauty of the Universe, Which Becomes, by God's Ordinance, More Brilliant by the Opposition of Contraries](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xviii.md): Augustine explains that God, foreknowing the wickedness of angels and men, created them because He could turn their evil to good, embellishing the course of the ages like an exquisite poem set off with antitheses. He dra
- [XIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xix.md): Augustine interprets the biblical account of God dividing light from darkness as an allegory for the creation of the angels and the separation of the holy angels from the fallen ones. He argues that only God could make t
- [Chapter XX: The Separation of Light and Darkness and Divine Approval](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xx.md): Augustine examines the scriptural account of the separation of light from darkness, noting that God's approval is given to the light alone, not to the darkness, because the darkness represents the fault of the fallen ang
- [Of God's Eternal and Unchangeable Knowledge and Will](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxi.md): Augustine explores the nature of God's eternal and unchangeable knowledge and will, arguing that God's approval of creation as 'good' reflects His eternal design rather than a temporal discovery. He contrasts human tempo
- [Of those who do not approve of certain things which are a part of this good creation of a good Creator, and who think that there is some natural evil.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxii.md): Augustine argues that all created things are good because they come from a good Creator, and that apparent evils like fire, frost, or wild beasts are not evil in themselves but are good in their proper place and use. He 
- [XXIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiii.md): Augustine criticizes Origen's doctrine that the world was created as a prison for souls who sinned, arguing instead that a good God created good creatures and that the universe is beautified even by sinners, like shadows
- [Of the divine Trinity, and the indications of its presence scattered everywhere among its works](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiv.md): Augustine expounds the doctrine of the Trinity—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—as one God in three persons, co-eternal and consubstantial. He suggests that the Holy Spirit may be understood as the substantial goodness and h
- [Of the division of philosophy into three parts](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxv.md): Augustine discusses the threefold division of philosophy into natural, rational, and moral (physical, logical, ethical). He notes that this division was discovered, not invented, and that Plato was the first to promulgat
- [Of the image of the supreme Trinity, which we find in some sort in human nature even in its present state](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxvi.md): Augustine explores the image of the supreme Trinity in human nature, emphasizing that while humans are not equal to God, they bear a closer resemblance to Him than any other creation. He argues that the mind's self-aware
- [Of existence, and knowledge of it, and the love of both](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxvii.md): Augustine explores the innate human love of existence, even in misery, and contrasts it with the love of knowledge and truth, which is unique to humans and grounded in an inner spiritual light that enables judgment of ju
- [Whether we ought to love the love itself with which we love our existence and our knowledge of it, that so we may more nearly resemble the image of the divine Trinity](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxviii.md): Augustine explores the love with which we love our existence and knowledge, arguing that this love itself is loved, especially in justly loved persons. He distinguishes between good love (leading to living well) and evil
- [Of the knowledge by which the holy angels know God in His essence, and by which they see the causes of His works in the art of the worker, before they see them in the works of the artist](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxix.md): Augustine explains that holy angels know God not through audible words but through the presence of immutable truth, the only-begotten Word of God. They understand the Trinity as one substance and know creatures better in
- [Of the Perfection of the Number Six](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxx.md): Augustine explains the significance of the number six as a perfect number, composed of its aliquot parts (1, 2, and 3), and argues that God completed creation in six days not out of necessity but to signify the perfectio
- [Of the seventh day, in which completeness and repose are celebrated](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxxi.md): Augustine discusses the symbolism of the seventh day, representing God's rest and completeness. He explores the perfection of the number seven as a symbol of totality and rest, contrasting the labor of partial knowledge 
- [Of the opinion that the angels were created before the world](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxxii.md): Augustine discusses the possibility that angels were created before the material world, interpreting the phrase 'In the beginning' as referring to Christ, the Wisdom of God. He emphasizes the Trinity in the opening of Ge
- [Of the two different and dissimilar communities of angels, which are not inappropriately signified by the names light and darkness](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxxiii.md): Augustine interprets the biblical separation of light and darkness in Genesis as an allegory for the two distinct societies of angels: the good angels who enjoy God and are called 'light,' and the fallen angels who sinne
- [Chapter XXIV: Of the idea that the angels were meant where the separation of the waters by the firmament is spoken of, and of that other idea that the waters were not created.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiv.md): Augustine discusses interpretations of the creation account, particularly the separation of waters by the firmament. Some interpret the waters above as angels and the waters below as visible waters, bad angels, or nation
- [Book XII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-book-xii.md): Augustine examines the origin of good and evil wills among the angels, arguing that both good and bad angels share the same nature created by God, and that their difference arises solely from their wills—the good adherin
- [Chapter I](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-i.md): Augustine argues that the good and bad angels share the same nature, created by God, and that their difference lies in their wills: the good adhere to God, while the wicked, proud, and envious angels turned away from Him
- [That there is no entity contrary to the divine](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ii.md): Augustine argues that there is no nature contrary to God, the Supreme Being, because nonentity alone is opposite to Him who supremely and always is. He explains that all created beings derive their existence from God, wh
- [III](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iii.md): Augustine argues that the enemies of God are opposed not by nature but by their own will and vice, which harms only themselves and not God, who is unchangeable and immune to injury. Vice corrupts the good of nature, and 
- [Of the nature of irrational and lifeless creatures, which in their own kind and order do not mar the beauty of the universe](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iv.md): Augustine argues that irrational and lifeless creatures, despite their apparent faults, do not detract from the beauty of the universe because they occupy their proper place in the created order. He emphasizes that human
- [That in all natures, of every kind and rank, God is glorified.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-v.md): Augustine argues that all natures, in their being, rank, and internal harmony, are good because they are created by God. Even corruptible and perishable things serve the divine providence by fulfilling their designed end
- [What the cause of the blessedness of the good angels is, and what the cause of the misery of the wicked](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vi.md): Augustine explores the cause of the blessedness of good angels (their adherence to God) and the misery of bad angels (their prideful turning away from God). He argues that the evil will has no efficient cause, as it aris
- [That We Ought Not to Expect to Find Any Efficient Cause of the Evil Will](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vii.md): Augustine argues that the evil will has no efficient cause, but is instead a defect or deficiency—a turning away from the supreme Being to that which has less being. He compares seeking the cause of such defection to try
- [Of the Misdirected Love Whereby the Will Fell Away from the Immutable to the Mutable Good](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-viii.md): Augustine explains that the will becomes evil not by necessity but by its own voluntary choice, turning away from the immutable supreme good toward mutable lesser goods. He argues that sin is not in the things themselves
- [Chapter IX: Whether the Angels, Besides Receiving from God Their Nature, Received from Him Also Their Good Will by the Holy Spirit Imbuing Them with Love](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ix.md): Augustine argues that the good will of the holy angels is not self-generated but created and sustained by God through the Holy Spirit. He rejects the notion that angels could produce a good will independently, as that wo
- [Chapter X: Of the falseness of the history which allots many thousand years to the world’s past.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-x.md): Augustine criticizes pagan historians who claim the world and human race have existed for many thousands of years, arguing that such accounts are false and contradicted by the sacred Scriptures, which indicate less than 
- [Of those who suppose that this world indeed is not eternal, but that either there are numberless worlds, or that one and the same world is perpetually resolved into its elements, and renewed at the conclusion of fixed cycles.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xi.md): Augustine critiques those who believe the world is not eternal but either consists of countless worlds or undergoes periodic destruction and renewal. He argues that such views cannot account for the origin of the human r
- [XII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xii.md): Augustine addresses those who criticize the recent creation of man, arguing that any finite time, no matter how vast, is insignificant compared to infinite eternity. He contends that the question of why man was not creat
- [Of the revolution of the ages, which some philosophers believe will bring all things round again, after a certain fixed cycle, to the same order and form as at first.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiii.md): Augustine refutes the pagan philosophical concept of eternal cycles or 'revolutions of the ages' that would endlessly repeat the same events, including the lives and teachings of individuals like Plato. He argues that su
- [XIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiv.md): Augustine discusses the creation of the human race in time, emphasizing that God's eternal and unchangeable design brought man into existence without any new or sudden resolution. He contrasts this with the futile circul
- [XV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xv.md): Augustine explores the relationship between God's eternal lordship and the existence of created beings, particularly angels, questioning whether creatures have always existed and how they can be said to be created yet no
- [XVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvi.md): Augustine reflects on the meaning of God's promise of eternal life made before eternal times, arguing that no created thing is co-eternal with the Creator and that the promise was predestined in God's co-eternal Word.
- [Chapter XVII: On God's Unchangeable Counsel and Will Against the Theory of Eternal Cycles](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvii.md): Augustine defends the Christian doctrine of God's unchangeable will and counsel against philosophical arguments that posit eternal cycles of repetition. He refutes the notion that God's creation of man and temporal thing
- [Chapter XVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xviii.md): Augustine refutes the claim that God cannot comprehend infinite things, using the example of numbers to argue that God's infinite understanding encompasses all infinity, and that His knowledge is not limited by temporal 
- [Of worlds without end, or ages of ages](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xix.md): Augustine discusses the meaning of 'ages of ages' and argues against the pagan notion of cyclical time where the same events recur indefinitely. He suggests that whether 'ages of ages' refers to a succession of different
- [Chapter XX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xx.md): Augustine refutes the Platonic doctrine of eternal cycles of souls returning to misery and bliss, arguing that true blessedness is eternal and not subject to periodic relapse. He insists that God can create new things wi
- [That there was created at first but one individual, and that the human race was created in him.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxi.md): Augustine explains why God created the human race from a single individual rather than from multiple origins. He contrasts solitary and gregarious animals, noting that God created many of each kind at once, but for man—a
- [XXII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxii.md): Augustine explains that God foreknew the first man's sin and the subsequent moral decay of humanity, yet also foresaw the redemption of a godly multitude through grace, united with angels in eternal peace.
- [Of the nature of the human soul created in the image of God](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiii.md): Augustine explains that God created man in His own image, endowing the human soul with reason and intelligence, setting humans above all other creatures. He describes the creation of Eve from Adam's side and emphasizes t
- [Whether the angels can be said to be the creators of any, even the least creature](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiv.md): Augustine argues against the Platonic notion that lesser gods or angels created mortal animals, asserting that only God is the creator of any nature, no matter how small. He clarifies that angels may assist in production
- [That God alone is the Creator of every kind of creature, whatever its nature or form](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxv.md): Augustine argues that God alone is the true Creator of all natures, distinguishing between external forms given by human artisans and the internal, life-giving form that only God can produce. He emphasizes that even ange
- [Of that opinion of the Platonists, that the angels were themselves indeed created by God, but that afterwards they created man’s body.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxvi.md): Augustine critiques the Platonic and Porphyrian view that inferior gods or angels created the mortal body while God created the immortal soul. He argues that if the body is a punishment for the soul, then these supposed 
- [XXVII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxvii.md): Augustine explains that the entire human race was contained in the first man, Adam, and that God foreknew the division of humanity into two cities: one destined for reward with the good angels, the other for punishment w
- [Book XIII: Of the Good of Death, the Resurrection of the Flesh, and the Paradise of the First Parents](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-book-xiii.md): Augustine explores the paradoxical transformation of death from a punishment for sin into a means of righteousness through divine grace, particularly in the martyr's witness. He argues that death, though an evil in itsel
- [Of the fall of the first man, through which mortality has been contracted.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-i.md): Augustine transitions from discussing the origin of the world and the human race to the fall of the first man (and first men), explaining that God made humans not like the angels in immortality, but conditionally: obedie
- [Chapter II](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ii.md): Augustine distinguishes between the death of the body and the death of the soul, explaining that the soul's death occurs when God forsakes it, while the body's death occurs when the soul departs. He introduces the concep
- [Whether Death, Which by the Sin of Our First Parents Has Passed Upon All Men, Is the Punishment of Sin, Even to the Good](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iii.md): Augustine addresses the question of whether death, as a consequence of original sin, can be considered good for the righteous. He explains that the first humans were created immortal but, upon sinning, were punished with
- [Why Death, the Punishment of Sin, Is Not Withheld from Those Who by Grace Are Absolved from Sin](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iv.md): Augustine explains why even those who are absolved from sin through the grace of regeneration still suffer physical death. He argues that the separation of soul and body is retained after baptism to preserve the nature o
- [Chapter V](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-v.md): Augustine explores the paradoxical relationship between law, sin, and death, arguing that while the law is good and death is evil, the wicked misuse the law and the righteous can make good use of death through grace. He 
- [Of the evil of death in general, considered as the separation of soul and body.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vi.md): Augustine discusses the nature of bodily death as the separation of soul and body, describing the painful experience of this separation and how it can be endured piously to increase merit. He notes that death, inherited 
- [Chapter VII: Of the death which the unbaptized suffer for the confession of Christ](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vii.md): Augustine discusses the efficacy of martyrdom for unbaptized believers, arguing that confession of Christ before men can remit sins just as baptism does, citing scriptural exceptions. He contrasts the merit of those who 
- [VIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-viii.md): Augustine explains that the saints who suffer the first death (physical death) for the truth are freed from the second death (eternal damnation). He argues that death is not good in the moment of suffering, but it is mer
- [IX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ix.md): Augustine examines the precise moment of death, questioning whether death itself can be called good or evil, and argues that the experience of dying is not death itself but a state of life until the soul departs the body
- [X](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-x.md): Augustine reflects on the nature of mortal life, arguing that it is more accurately called a process of dying than living, as every moment brings us closer to death. He explores the paradox that from the moment we begin 
- [Chapter XI: Whether one can both be living and dead at the same time.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xi.md): Augustine explores the logical and linguistic difficulties of defining the moment of death, arguing that a person is never truly 'in death' while alive or after death, and concludes that the eternal death of the soul is 
- [What death God intended, when He threatened our first parents with death if they should disobey His commandment.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xii.md): Augustine explains that the death threatened by God to Adam and Eve for disobedience encompasses all forms of death: the death of the soul (separation from God), the death of the body (separation of soul from body), the 
- [What was the first punishment of the transgression of our first parents?](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiii.md): Augustine describes the immediate consequences of the first sin: divine grace forsakes the first parents, they feel shame and cover themselves with fig leaves, and their flesh becomes disobedient to them as a retribution
- [In what state man was made by God, and into what estate he fell by the choice of his own will.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiv.md): Augustine explains that God created man upright, but through the misuse of free will, man fell into sin and corruption. This original sin propagated to all humanity, leading to a chain of miseries and the second death, e
- [XV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xv.md): Augustine explains that Adam's sin was a voluntary desertion of God, which led to the first death of the soul—being forsaken by God. He clarifies that God's warning 'Ye shall die the death' encompassed both the spiritual
- [Chapter XVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvi.md): Augustine defends the Christian view that the soul's separation from the body is not inherently penal, arguing that it is the corruptibility of the body, not the body itself, that burdens the soul. He cites Plato's accou
- [Chapter XVII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvii.md): Augustine argues against Platonist philosophers who deny that earthly bodies can be made incorruptible and eternal, while affirming the eternity of the earth and the gods' bodies. He points out the inconsistency in their
- [Chapter XVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xviii.md): Augustine defends the possibility of earthly bodies existing in heaven against philosophical objections based on natural weight. He argues that God's power can emancipate resurrected bodies from gravity, just as human sk
- [XIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xix.md): Augustine argues against those who doubt the immortality of the first parents before sin, explaining that death is a consequence of sin and that the righteous will be resurrected with glorified bodies. He contrasts Plato
- [Chapter XX: The Resurrection of the Flesh and the Perfection of the Spiritual Body](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xx.md): Augustine explains that the souls of departed saints are not harmed by death, as their flesh rests in hope of resurrection. He contrasts the future spiritual body with the animal body of the first parents before the Fall
- [Of Paradise, that it can be understood in a spiritual sense without sacrificing the historic truth of the narrative regarding the real place.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxi.md): Augustine argues that Paradise can be interpreted allegorically to represent spiritual truths—such as the life of the blessed, the Church, or virtues—without denying the literal, historical reality of the terrestrial Par
- [XXII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxii.md): Augustine discusses the nature of resurrected bodies, arguing that they will be spiritual and immortal, yet still flesh. He explains that the saints will not need food for survival but may eat by choice, as angels and Ch
- [XXIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiii.md): Augustine explains the distinction between the animal (natural) body and the spiritual body, drawing on Paul's contrast between the first Adam (a living soul) and the last Adam, Christ (a quickening spirit). He argues th
- [Chapter XXIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiv.md): Augustine examines the nature of the soul and body, distinguishing between the animal body given to Adam and the spiritual body promised to the faithful. He clarifies that the 'breathing of God' into Adam gave him a livi
- [Book XIV: The Sin of the First Man and the Two Cities](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-book-xiv.md): Augustine examines the sin of the first man as the origin of carnal life and disordered affections, arguing that shame accompanying lust is the just punishment for disobedience. He distinguishes the two cities—those livi
- [I](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-i.md): Augustine explains that the disobedience of the first man would have condemned all humanity to eternal death, but God's grace rescued many. He introduces the concept of two cities: those who live after the flesh and thos
- [Of Carnal Life](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ii.md): Augustine clarifies that living 'after the flesh' in Scripture does not refer only to bodily indulgence but includes all vices of the inner man, such as idolatry, hatred, and strife, which are works of the soul. He argue
- [III](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iii.md): Augustine argues that sin originates not from the flesh but from the soul, and that the corruption of the body is a punishment for sin, not its cause. He refutes the Platonic view expressed by Virgil that the body is the
- [Chapter IV: What it is to live according to man, and what to live according to God](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iv.md): Augustine explains that living according to man (the flesh) rather than God is a lie and akin to the devil, because man was made upright to live according to God's will. He equates 'carnal' and 'animal' with living accor
- [V](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-v.md): Augustine argues that the Platonists, while less censurable than the Manichaeans, still err in attributing the origin of vices to the nature of the flesh. He contends that the flesh is good in its own kind and degree, an
- [Of the Character of the Human Will Which Makes the Affections of the Soul Right or Wrong](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vi.md): Augustine discusses how the human will determines the moral quality of the soul's affections—desire, joy, fear, and sorrow—arguing that a right will produces praiseworthy emotions while a wrong will produces blameworthy 
- [VII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vii.md): Augustine argues that the words 'love' (amor), 'regard' (dilectio), and 'charity' (caritas) are used interchangeably in Scripture for both good and evil affections. He demonstrates this with biblical examples, including 
- [Chapter VIII: Of the Three Perturbations and the Stoic View of the Wise Man's Emotions](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-viii.md): Augustine examines the Stoic doctrine of the three 'constantiae' (will, contentment, caution) which they attribute to the wise man, contrasting them with the four 'perturbationes' (desire, joy, fear, sorrow) of the fool.
- [IX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ix.md): Augustine discusses the proper affections of the citizens of the City of God, arguing that emotions such as fear, desire, grief, and joy are right when they are directed by love of God and neighbor. He contrasts this wit
- [Chapter X: The Blessedness of Paradise Before the Fall](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-x.md): Augustine questions whether Adam and Eve experienced emotional perturbations like fear or desire before their sin, arguing that such emotions would have been incompatible with their blessed state in Paradise. He contends
- [Of the fall of the first man, in whom nature was created good, and can be restored only by its Author](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xi.md): Augustine discusses the fall of the first man, emphasizing that God's foreknowledge and ordination were not disturbed by human sin. He explains that the first evil will was a falling away from God's work, not a positive 
- [Of the nature of man’s first sin](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xii.md): Augustine explains that the first sin, though seemingly small because it involved eating forbidden fruit, was a grave offense because it violated the command of obedience, which is the foundation of all virtues. He argue
- [Chapter XIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiii.md): Augustine explores the origin of evil in Adam's sin, tracing it back to pride and the evil will that preceded the evil act. He argues that the first parents fell into disobedience because they were already secretly corru
- [XIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiv.md): Augustine examines the sin of Adam and Eve, arguing that their pride was worse than the transgression itself because they sought to excuse their disobedience by blaming others—Eve blamed the serpent, Adam blamed Eve—rath
- [XV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xv.md): Augustine discusses the justice of the punishment for Adam and Eve's disobedience, arguing that the sin was a despising of God's authority and that the resulting condemnation—man's fleshly nature, bondage to sin, and mor
- [Of the evil of lust](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvi.md): Augustine discusses the nature of lust, particularly sexual lust, describing how it overcomes the whole person, suspends mental activity, and does not obey the will even in lawful procreation.
- [Of the Nakedness of Our First Parents After Their Sin](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvii.md): Augustine discusses the shame associated with lust and the genitals after the Fall, contrasting the state of innocence before sin when Adam and Eve were naked without shame. He explains that their eyes were opened not to
- [XVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xviii.md): Augustine discusses the inherent shame associated with sexual intercourse, even within lawful marriage for procreation. He observes that lust demands secrecy and darkness, and that even legitimate conjugal acts are hidde
- [XIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xix.md): Augustine discusses how, after sin, anger and lust became vicious emotions that must be bridled by wisdom and reason, contrasting their disordered movement in fallen nature with their original harmony in Paradise before 
- [Of the foolish beastliness of the Cynics](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xx.md): Augustine criticizes the Cynic philosophers for their shameless public display of sexual acts, arguing that such behavior violates natural modesty and reflects the punishment of original sin. He notes that even among Cyn
- [XXI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxi.md): Augustine argues that the blessing of fecundity given before the Fall was not annulled by sin, but was infected by lust. He distinguishes the original, shame-free procreation intended for Paradise from the post-lapsarian
- [XXII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxii.md): Augustine discusses the original institution of marriage by God, emphasizing that the creation of male and female was for the purpose of procreation and that the conjugal union is a divine blessing. He cites Scripture an
- [Chapter XXIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiii.md): Augustine argues that procreation would have occurred in Paradise without sin, and that the shameful lust accompanying it is a consequence of the Fall. He contends that the body's members, including those for generation,
- [Chapter XXIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiv.md): Augustine argues that before the Fall, human generative organs would have been obedient to the will, like other bodily members, and that lust is a consequence of sin and disobedience. He supports this by citing extraordi
- [Of true blessedness, which this present life cannot enjoy](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxv.md): Augustine argues that true blessedness cannot be attained in this life because it requires eternal life, freedom from death, deception, and injury. Even the righteous do not live as they wish until they reach the eternal
- [XXVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxvi.md): Augustine discusses the state of humanity in Paradise before the Fall, describing the harmonious and passionless generation of offspring without lust, and explains God's foreknowledge and grace in creating those who woul
- [Of the angels and men who sinned, and that their wickedness did not disturb the order of God’s providence](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxvii.md): Augustine argues that the sins of angels and men do not disrupt God's providential order. God, in His omnipotence, uses both good and wicked beings to accomplish His will. He permitted the devil to tempt the first man, n
- [Of the nature of the two cities, the earthly and the heavenly](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxviii.md): Augustine contrasts the earthly city, formed by love of self even to contempt of God, with the heavenly city, formed by love of God even to contempt of self. The earthly city glories in itself and seeks human glory, whil
- [Book XV: The Progress of the Two Cities](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-book-xv.md): Augustine explains the growth and progress of the earthly and heavenly cities from Cain and Abel to the deluge, using the allegory of Abraham's two sons to illustrate the distinction between the children of the flesh and
- [I](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-i.md): Augustine introduces the two lines of the human race—those who live according to man and those who live according to God—which he calls the two cities. He reviews the origin of these cities from the first parents, Cain a
- [Of the children of the flesh and the children of the promise](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ii.md): Augustine explains the allegorical meaning of Abraham's two sons, Ishmael and Isaac, as representing the two covenants and the two cities: the earthly city born of the flesh and bondage, and the heavenly city born of pro
- [That Sarah’s barrenness was made productive by God’s grace](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iii.md): Augustine explains that Sarah's barrenness and the birth of Ishmael according to natural generation contrast with the miraculous birth of Isaac, who is born according to the promise and symbolizes the children of grace a
- [Of the Conflict and Peace of the Earthly City](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iv.md): Augustine contrasts the earthly city, which seeks temporal peace and goods through conflict and war, with the heavenly city that pursues eternal peace. He warns that inordinate love of earthly goods leads to misery, whil
- [Of the fratricidal act of the founder of the earthly city, and the corresponding crime of the founder of Rome](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-v.md): Augustine draws a parallel between the fratricide of Cain and Abel and the murder of Remus by Romulus, contrasting the earthly city's division and envy with the heavenly city's peace and shared goodness.
- [Chapter VI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vi.md): Augustine discusses the sickness of disobedience as punishment for the first sin, which afflicts even the citizens of the City of God during their earthly pilgrimage. He emphasizes that this is not natural but a vice, an
- [Chapter VII: Of the Cause of Cain's Crime and His Obstinacy](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vii.md): Augustine examines the story of Cain and Abel, focusing on Cain's sin of envy, God's admonition to him, and his refusal to repent. He interprets God's words to Cain as a command to rule over sin, drawing parallels to the
- [VIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-viii.md): Augustine defends the scriptural account of Cain building a city early in human history, arguing that the biblical narrative does not list all living persons but only those relevant to tracing the generations of the eart
- [Of the long life and greater stature of the antediluvians](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ix.md): Augustine argues for the credibility of the biblical account of the antediluvians' long lives and large stature, citing evidence from ancient poets like Virgil, the discovery of giant bones, and the testimony of Pliny. H
- [X](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-x.md): Augustine examines the discrepancies between the Hebrew manuscripts and his own Latin manuscripts regarding the ages of the antediluvian patriarchs, showing that despite differences in the numbers before and after the bi
- [Of Methuselah's Age and the Chronological Discrepancy](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xi.md): Augustine examines the apparent discrepancy between the Hebrew and Greek (Septuagint) manuscripts regarding Methuselah's age, which seems to extend fourteen years beyond the flood. He discusses the possibility that Methu
- [Chapter XII: Of the opinion of those who do not believe that in these primitive times men lived so long as is stated.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xii.md): Augustine refutes the theory that the long lifespans of the antediluvian patriarchs are due to a different reckoning of years (e.g., one of our years equaling ten of theirs). He argues that such a view leads to absurditi
- [Chapter XIII: On the Discrepancies Between the Hebrew and Septuagint Chronologies](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiii.md): Augustine examines the differences in chronological numbers between the Hebrew and Septuagint versions of the Old Testament, particularly regarding the ages of the antediluvian patriarchs. He argues that the variations a
- [XIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiv.md): Augustine defends the literal interpretation of the long lifespans of the antediluvian patriarchs, arguing that the years mentioned in Scripture were of the same length as modern years, as evidenced by the detailed chron
- [XV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xv.md): Augustine addresses the question of whether the antediluvian patriarchs abstained from sexual intercourse for many years before begetting children. He argues that the sons named in the genealogies were not necessarily th
- [Chapter XVI: Of Marriage Between Blood-Relations](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvi.md): Augustine discusses the necessity of marriage between siblings in the earliest ages of humanity due to the lack of other humans, and contrasts this with later prohibitions and customs that discourage such unions. He argu
- [Of the two fathers and leaders who sprang from one progenitor.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvii.md): Augustine explains that from Adam, two lines of descent emerged: the earthly city from Cain and the heavenly city from Seth. He interprets the names and genealogies to show that Cain's line, ending with Lamech and his wi
- [The Significance of Abel, Seth, and Enos to Christ and His Body the Church](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xviii.md): Augustine interprets the genealogical figures Abel, Seth, and Enos as prefigurations of Christ, the resurrection, and the Church. He emphasizes that the city of God lives in hope, not in earthly felicity, and that callin
- [The Significance of Enoch’s Translation](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xix.md): Augustine discusses the translation of Enoch, the seventh from Adam, as a prefiguration of the future dedication of the whole house of God, which is already accomplished in Christ but will be fully realized at the end wh
- [The Generations of Cain and Seth: The Two Cities Before the Flood](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xx.md): Augustine explains why the genealogy of Cain ends with Lamech's children in the eighth generation from Adam, while the line of Seth continues to Noah, the tenth from Adam. He argues that Cain's line represents the earthl
- [Chapter XXI: The Two Cities from Cain and Seth](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxi.md): Augustine contrasts the genealogies of Cain and Seth, showing how the earthly city (Cain's line) is marked by murder and earthly possession, while the heavenly city (Seth's line) is built on hope in God and typifies the 
- [Of the fall of the sons of God who were captivated by the daughters of men, whereby all, with the exception of eight persons, deservedly perished in the deluge](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxii.md): Augustine discusses the mixing of the two cities through the sons of God marrying the daughters of men, leading to universal corruption and the flood. He emphasizes that beauty is a good gift of God but must be loved ord
- [Chapter XXIII: On the Nature of Angels and the Birth of Giants](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiii.md): Augustine examines whether spiritual beings, such as angels, could have had bodily intercourse with women, leading to the birth of giants. He distinguishes between holy angels and fallen spirits, referencing scriptural a
- [Chapter XXIV: Understanding the 120 Years and the Cause of the Deluge](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiv.md): Augustine interprets God's declaration that men's days shall be 120 years not as a limit on human lifespan but as a prediction of the remaining time before the flood, calculated from Noah's age. He explains that the floo
- [XXV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxv.md): Augustine explains that the anger of God is not a human-like emotion but a just judgment for sin. He discusses how Scripture uses anthropomorphic language to reach all levels of human understanding, and clarifies that th
- [XXVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxvi.md): Augustine interprets Noah's ark as a figure of Christ and the Church, the city of God sojourning in the world. He explains the ark's dimensions as symbolizing the human body of Christ, the door in its side as the wound f
- [Of the Ark and the Deluge](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxvii.md): Augustine defends the historical reality of Noah's ark and the flood against skeptics, while affirming its allegorical and prophetic significance for the church. He argues that the ark prefigures the church, containing b
- [Book XVI: The Progress of the Two Cities from Noah to Abraham and Beyond](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-book-xvi.md): This chapter traces the progress of the earthly and heavenly cities from Noah to Abraham, examining the prophetic significance of Noah's sons and the continuity of the holy city. It discusses the allegorical meaning of S
- [I](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-i.md): Augustine examines the difficulty of tracing the continuity of the holy city from Noah to Abraham, noting that Scripture does not explicitly celebrate the piety of any worshipper of the one true God during that period ex
- [What was prophetically prefigured in the sons of Noah](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ii.md): Augustine interprets the story of Noah's sons—Shem, Japheth, and Ham—as prophetic figures of Christ and the Church. Shem represents Christ, Japheth the Gentiles, and Ham heretics or wicked Christians. The nakedness of No
- [III](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iii.md): This chapter traces the genealogies of Noah's three sons—Japheth, Ham, and Shem—to illustrate the historical progress of the two cities. It explains the derivation of the name 'Hebrew' from Heber, notes the founding of B
- [Of the diversity of languages, and of the founding of Babylon](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iv.md): Augustine recounts the biblical story of the Tower of Babel, where humanity's unified language was confounded by God as punishment for their prideful attempt to build a tower reaching heaven. He identifies the city as Ba
- [Of God’s coming down to confound the languages of the builders of the city](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-v.md): Augustine interprets the biblical account of God descending to confound the languages of the builders of the tower, explaining that God's 'descent' and 'seeing' are figurative expressions for His extraordinary actions an
- [What we are to understand by God’s speaking to the angels](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vi.md): Augustine interprets God's words at creation, 'Let us make man in our image,' as referring to the plurality of the Trinity, not the angels, since man is made in God's image, not that of angels. He explains that God speak
- [Whether even the remotest islands received their fauna from the animals which were preserved, through the deluge, in the ark.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vii.md): Augustine addresses the question of how animals, especially those that cannot swim long distances, came to inhabit remote islands after the Flood. He considers possibilities such as swimming, human transport, angelic int
- [VIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-viii.md): Augustine discusses whether monstrous races of men are descended from Adam or Noah's sons. He argues that any rational mortal animal, regardless of physical peculiarities, springs from the one protoplast, Adam. He cautio
- [IX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ix.md): Augustine dismisses the notion of the Antipodes as incredible and contrary to Scripture, arguing that even if the earth is spherical, it does not follow that the opposite side is habitable or populated by descendants of 
- [Chapter X](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-x.md): Augustine traces the genealogy from Shem to Abraham, showing the preservation of the city of God after the flood. He discusses the division of languages at Babel, the coexistence of the godly and ungodly lines, and clari
- [XI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xi.md): This chapter discusses the preservation of the original human language, Hebrew, in the family of Heber during the confusion of tongues at Babylon. It argues that Hebrew was the primitive common language, retained by Hebe
- [Of the era in Abraham’s life from which a new period in the holy succession begins](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xii.md): Augustine traces the progress of the City of God from the patriarch Abraham, highlighting how the family of Terah preserved the worship of the true God amid widespread superstition, much as Noah's family was preserved th
- [Chapter XIII: Terah's Emigration and the Silence on Nahor](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiii.md): Augustine examines why the biblical account of Terah's emigration from Chaldea to Mesopotamia omits mention of his son Nahor, while later references show Nahor also settled in Mesopotamia. He suggests Nahor may have init
- [Of the years of Terah, who completed his lifetime in Haran](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiv.md): This chapter clarifies the meaning of the scriptural account of Terah's death in Haran at the age of 205 years, explaining that he completed his life there rather than having lived all his days in that place. It emphasiz
- [XV Of the time of the migration of Abraham, when, according to the commandment of God, he went out from Haran](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xv.md): Augustine resolves an apparent chronological difficulty in Scripture regarding Abraham's departure from Haran. He argues that the narrative order does not necessarily reflect chronological order, showing that Abraham lef
- [Of the order and nature of the promises of God which were made to Abraham](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvi.md): Augustine examines God's promises to Abraham, distinguishing between the earthly promise of the land of Canaan and the spiritual promise that all nations would be blessed through Abraham's faith. He discusses the timing 
- [Of the three most famous kingdoms of the nations, of which one, that is, the Assyrian, was already very eminent when Abraham was born](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvii.md): Augustine describes the three great kingdoms of the nations—Sicyon, Egypt, and Assyria—that flourished during the time of Abraham, with Assyria being the most powerful under King Ninus. He explains the geographical divis
- [Of the repeated address of God to Abraham, in which He promised the land of Canaan to him and to his seed.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xviii.md): This chapter recounts God's repeated promise to Abraham, after his departure from Haran at age seventy-five, that the land of Canaan would be given to his seed. It clarifies that this promise pertains specifically to the
- [Of the divine preservation of Sarah's chastity in Egypt, when Abraham had called her not his wife but his sister](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xix.md): Abraham, driven by famine into Egypt, calls Sarah his sister rather than his wife, not lying because she is his close relative. He entrusts her chastity to God while taking human precautions. Pharaoh takes Sarah but is s
- [Of the parting of Lot and Abraham, which they agreed to without breach of charity](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xx.md): Abraham and Lot, having grown wealthy, separate their households to avoid strife among their herdsmen, doing so peacefully and without breach of charity. Abraham offers Lot the choice of land, establishing a pacific cust
- [Of the third promise of God, by which He assured the land of Canaan to Abraham and his seed in perpetuity](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxi.md): Augustine examines the third divine promise to Abraham, wherein God assures him and his seed the land of Canaan forever. He discusses the hyperbole in comparing Abraham's seed to the dust of the earth, interpreting this 
- [Of Abraham’s overcoming the enemies of Sodom, when he delivered Lot from captivity and was blessed by Melchizedek the priest.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxii.md): Abraham receives a divine oracle and migrates to Hebron. When Lot is taken captive during a war between five kings and four, Abraham rescues him with 318 home-born servants, refuses spoils from the king of Sodom, and is 
- [XXIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiii.md): God's promise to Abraham that his descendants would be as numerous as the stars, and Abraham's faith being counted as righteousness while still uncircumcised, prefiguring the inclusion of the Gentiles.
- [XXIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiv.md): Augustine interprets Abraham's sacrificial vision, explaining how the heifer, she-goat, ram, turtledove, and pigeon prefigure spiritual truths about the people of Israel, the law, sin, and kingship. He clarifies that the
- [Of Sarah's handmaid, Hagar, whom she herself wished to be Abraham's concubine.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxv.md): This chapter discusses Abraham's relationship with Hagar, Sarah's handmaid, emphasizing that Abraham acted without lust or lewdness, but out of obedience to Sarah and for the purpose of begetting progeny. It highlights t
- [XXVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxvi.md): God appears to Abraham at age 99, promising a son through the barren Sarah and establishing the covenant of circumcision. This promise signifies grace over nature and prefigures the new covenant in Christ. The chapter ex
- [XXVII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxvii.md): Augustine addresses the apparent difficulty of why an uncircumcised male infant should be cut off from his people, explaining that the infant is not personally guilty but shares in the original sin of Adam, which broke G
- [Of the change of name in Abraham and Sarah, who received the gift of fecundity when they were incapable of regeneration owing to the barrenness of one, and the old age of both.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxviii.md): Augustine discusses the renaming of Abram to Abraham and Sarai to Sarah, interpreting the names and linking the promise of many nations to its fulfillment in Christ. He also addresses the miraculous nature of Sarah's con
- [Of the three men or angels, in whom the Lord is related to have appeared to Abraham at the oak of Mamre](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxix.md): Augustine discusses the appearance of God to Abraham in the form of three men at the oak of Mamre, arguing that these were angels, though some believe one was Christ. He emphasizes that God can appear to mortals through 
- [Of Lot’s Deliverance from Sodom and Abimelech’s Respect for Sarah](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxx.md): This chapter recounts Lot's deliverance from Sodom before its destruction by fire from heaven, interpreting the event as a foreshadowing of divine judgment. It also describes Abraham's encounter with Abimelech at Gerar, 
- [Of Isaac, who was born according to the promise, whose name was given on account of the laughter of both parents.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxxi.md): This chapter recounts the birth of Isaac to Abraham and Sarah according to God's promise, explaining the meaning of his name as 'laughter' and the significance of the laughter of both parents. It also notes the casting o
- [Of Abraham's Obedience and Faith, Proved by the Offering of Isaac, and of Sarah's Death](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxxii.md): This chapter recounts Abraham's test of faith when commanded to sacrifice his son Isaac, his unwavering obedience, and the divine provision of a ram as a substitute. It interprets the event as a typological foreshadowing
- [Of Rebecca, the granddaughter of Nahor, whom Isaac took to wife](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxxiii.md): Augustine recounts the marriage of Isaac to Rebecca, the granddaughter of Nahor, and interprets Abraham's instruction to his servant to swear by the Lord while placing his hand under Abraham's thigh as a prophetic sign t
- [Chapter XXXIV: On Abraham's Marriage to Keturah After Sarah's Death](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxxiv.md): Augustine interprets Abraham's marriage to Keturah after Sarah's death, arguing it was not due to incontinence but served a prophetic purpose. He suggests Keturah and her sons symbolize carnal people who think they belon
- [Chapter XXXV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxxv.md): Augustine examines the divine answer given to Rebecca about the twins in her womb, interpreting the prophecy 'the elder shall serve the younger' as a foreshadowing of the Jews serving the Christians, and highlighting the
- [Of the oracle and blessing which Isaac received, just as his father did, being beloved for his sake.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxxvi.md): This chapter discusses the oracle and blessing given to Isaac, similar to those received by his father Abraham. It recounts how Isaac, during a famine, was instructed by God not to go to Egypt but to dwell in Gerar, wher
- [Chapter XXXVII: Of the things mystically prefigured in Esau and Jacob](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxxvii.md): Augustine interprets the story of Isaac blessing Jacob instead of Esau as a prophetic mystery prefiguring Christ. He argues that Jacob's apparent guile is not fraudulent but a profound truth, and that Isaac's blessing of
- [Of Jacob’s mission to Mesopotamia to get a wife, and of the vision which he saw in a dream by the way, and of his getting four women when he sought one wife.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxxviii.md): Jacob is sent by his parents to Mesopotamia to take a wife from the daughters of Laban, not from the Canaanites. His father Isaac blesses him with the blessing of Abraham, signifying that the seed of Jacob is the seed of
- [The Reason Why Jacob Was Also Called Israel](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxxix.md): Augustine explains that Jacob's name was changed to Israel by an angel who wrestled with him, representing a type of Christ. The struggle signifies Christ's passion and the Jews' overcoming of Him, while the blessing of 
- [Chapter XL: How it is said that Jacob went into Egypt with seventy-five souls, when most of those who are mentioned were born at a later period.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xl.md): Augustine examines the scriptural account of Jacob's entry into Egypt with seventy-five souls, noting that many of those listed, such as Joseph's great-grandchildren, could not have been born at the time of the actual en
- [Of the blessing which Jacob promised in Judah his son](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xli.md): Augustine interprets Jacob's prophetic blessing of Judah as a direct prophecy of Christ, emphasizing the voluntary nature of His death, His resurrection, and the establishment of the Church. He connects the imagery of th
- [XLII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xlii.md): Augustine interprets the blessing of Joseph's two sons by Jacob as a prophetic type of the two peoples: the Jews (the elder) and the Christians (the younger), showing that the younger brother's seed becomes a multitude o
- [Of the times of Moses and Joshua the son of Nun, of the judges, and thereafter of the kings, of whom Saul was the first, but David is to be regarded as the chief, both by the oath and by merit.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xliii.md): This chapter traces the history of God's people from the death of Jacob and Joseph through the exodus from Egypt under Moses, the leadership of Joshua, the period of the judges, and the establishment of the monarchy with
- [Book XVII: The Prophetic Age and the City of God](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-book-xvii.md): This book traces the history of the City of God from Samuel through David to Christ, focusing on the prophetic age. It discusses the fulfillment of God's promises to Abraham, the reign of kings in Judah and Israel, and i
- [I](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-i.md): Augustine defines the prophetic age as beginning with Samuel and continuing through the Babylonian captivity, emphasizing that the prophets foretold Christ and the City of God. He limits his discussion to avoid excessive
- [The Fulfillment of God's Promise Concerning the Land of Canaan](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ii.md): This chapter discusses the fulfillment of God's promise to Abraham regarding the land of Canaan, distinguishing between the earthly promise to the carnal seed of Israel and the spiritual promise to all nations through fa
- [Of the threefold meaning of the prophecies](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iii.md): Augustine explains that prophecies in Scripture can refer to the earthly Jerusalem, the heavenly Jerusalem, or both. He illustrates this with examples from the prophet Nathan and the promise of a new covenant, emphasizin
- [Chapter IV: The Prophecy of Hannah and the City of God](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iv.md): Augustine interprets Hannah's prophetic song as a foreshadowing of the New Testament and the Church. He explains that doing judgment and justice must occur during one's earthly life ('in the midst of the earth'), as ther
- [Chapter V](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-v.md): Augustine interprets the prophecy delivered by a man of God to Eli the priest, foretelling the removal of the Aaronic priesthood and the establishment of a faithful priest after God's own heart. He argues that this proph
- [Of the Jewish priesthood and kingdom, which, although promised to be established forever, did not continue; so that other things are to be understood to which eternity is assured](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vi.md): Augustine addresses the apparent contradiction between God's promise of an eternal priesthood and kingdom to the house of Saul and the historical reality of its rejection and change. He explains that the Aaronic priestho
- [VII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vii.md): This chapter discusses the disruption of the kingdom of Israel as a prefiguration of the perpetual division between the spiritual and carnal Israel. It focuses on Saul's sin, Samuel's prophecy that the kingdom would be t
- [Chapter VIII: Of the promises made to David in his son, which are in no wise fulfilled in Solomon, but most fully in Christ](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-viii.md): Augustine argues that God's promises to David regarding his son were not fulfilled in Solomon, but in Christ. He contrasts Solomon's reign, which included idolatry and limited earthly dominion, with the eternal kingdom o
- [IX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ix.md): Augustine compares the prophecy about Christ in Psalm 89 with Nathan's prophecy in the Books of Samuel, showing how both refer to the Lord Jesus Christ under the name of David, and explaining that references to sin and c
- [Chapter X](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-x.md): This chapter contrasts the earthly kingdom of Jerusalem with the promised heavenly kingdom, arguing that the promise of a true Christ was not fulfilled in Solomon or David but was delayed. It describes the downfall of th
- [Of the substance of the people of God, which through His assumption of flesh is in Christ, who alone had power to deliver His own soul from hell.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xi.md): Augustine interprets a prophetic psalm where the prophet prays to God, explaining that the 'substance' of God's people is Christ Jesus, the one man who could deliver His soul from hell. He contrasts the vanity of fallen 
- [Chapter XII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xii.md): Augustine interprets Psalm 89, questioning whether the plea for the fulfillment of God's promises to David comes from the Israelites or from spiritual Christians. He argues that the reproach of Christ's 'change'—His deat
- [XIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiii.md): Augustine argues that the promised peace cannot be fully realized in any earthly reign, including Solomon's, but is an eternal peace belonging to the heavenly Jerusalem. He warns against interpreting the scriptural promi
- [Of David’s concern in the writing of the Psalms](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiv.md): This chapter discusses King David's role in composing the Psalms, emphasizing his skill in music and prophecy as a shadow of the heavenly city. It addresses debates over authorship of the Psalms, citing Christ's referenc
- [XV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xv.md): Augustine acknowledges the expectation that he should expound the prophecies of David in the Psalms concerning Christ and His Church, but he declines due to the vastness of the material and the risk of prolixity. He note
- [Chapter XVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvi.md): Augustine interprets Psalm 45 as a prophecy of Christ and the Church, explaining how the queen (the Church) is formed from the unity of believers across all nations, and how she is set free from Babylon (the city of the 
- [Of those things in the 110th Psalm which relate to the priesthood of Christ, and in the 22nd to His passion.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvii.md): Augustine interprets Psalms 110 and 22 as prophecies of Christ's priesthood, passion, and universal reign. He emphasizes that Christ's priestly order after Melchizedek supersedes the Aaronic priesthood, and that the cruc
- [XVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xviii.md): Augustine interprets several Psalms (3rd, 41st, 15th, 68th) as prophecies of Christ's death and resurrection, arguing against Jewish interpretations that deny the Messiah's suffering and death.
- [Of the 69th Psalm, in which the obstinate unbelief of the Jews is declared.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xix.md): Augustine discusses the 69th Psalm as a prophecy of Christ's passion, noting that the Jews' refusal to accept the clear fulfillment of these prophecies fulfills the psalm's own prediction of their spiritual blindness and
- [Of David's reign and merit; and of his son Solomon, and that prophecy relating to Christ which is found either in those books which are joined to those written by him, or in those which are indubitably his.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xx.md): Augustine discusses the reign of David and his son Solomon, noting Solomon's good beginnings but bad end due to prosperity. He examines Solomon's canonical books (Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs) and the non-canoni
- [Of the kings after Solomon, both in Judah and Israel](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxi.md): Augustine discusses the division of the Hebrew kingdom after Solomon's reign, explaining how the ten tribes became Israel under Jeroboam in Samaria, while Judah (including Benjamin) remained under Rehoboam in Jerusalem. 
- [Of Jeroboam, who profaned the people put under him by the impiety of idolatry, amid which, however, God did not cease to inspire the prophets, and to guard many from the crime of idolatry.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxii.md): Jeroboam, fearing that his people would return to the house of David if they continued to worship at the temple in Jerusalem, established idolatry in his kingdom. Despite this, God continued to send prophets like Elijah 
- [Of the varying condition of both the Hebrew kingdoms, until the people of both were at different times led into captivity, Judah being afterwards recalled into his kingdom, which finally passed into the power of the Romans.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiii.md): This chapter describes the fluctuating fortunes of the Hebrew kingdoms of Israel and Judah under divine providence. It notes that while Judah had some pious kings, Israel's kings were all wicked. Both kingdoms suffered f
- [Of the prophets, who either were the last among the Jews, or whom the gospel history reports about the time of Christ’s nativity.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiv.md): Augustine discusses the prophets active after the Babylonian return, noting that after Malachi, Haggai, Zechariah, and Ezra, there were no prophets until the time of Christ's advent. He lists Zechariah (father of John), 
- [Book XVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-book-xviii.md): Augustine traces the parallel courses of the earthly and heavenly cities from Abraham to the end of the world, discussing the synchronous kings and times of both cities, the oracles regarding Christ from the sibyls and p
- [I](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-i.md): Augustine recapitulates his plan to describe the rise, progress, and appointed end of the two cities—God's city and the earthly city. He reviews his earlier refutation of pagans in the first ten books, the rise of both c
- [Of the kings and times of the earthly city which were synchronous with the times of the saints, reckoning from the rise of Abraham.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ii.md): Augustine discusses the parallel histories of the earthly city and the city of God, focusing on the synchronous reigns of Assyrian and Sicyon kings with the life of Abraham. He contrasts the earthly pursuit of power and 
- [III](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iii.md): This chapter recounts the kings reigning in Assyria and Sicyon at the time of Isaac's birth to Abraham and the birth of Esau and Jacob to Isaac. It also notes the rise of the kingdom of Argos under Inachus, the divine pr
- [Of the times of Jacob and his son Joseph](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iv.md): This chapter recounts the patriarchal history of Jacob and Joseph within the broader chronology of Assyrian, Sicyonian, and Argive kings. It highlights Isaac's death at 180, Jacob's election as the younger twin belonging
- [Of Apis king of Argos, whom the Egyptians called Serapis, and worshipped with divine honours](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-v.md): Augustine discusses the deification of Apis, king of Argos, who after his death was worshipped by the Egyptians as Serapis. He recounts Varro's explanation of the name's origin from 'soros' (sarcophagus) and 'Apis'. Augu
- [Who were kings of Argos, and of Assyria, when Jacob died in Egypt](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vi.md): This chapter recounts the kings reigning in Argos, Sicyon, and Assyria at the time of Jacob's death in Egypt, noting the reign of Argus in Argos and the introduction of agriculture to Greece. It also highlights Jacob's d
- [Who were kings when Joseph died in Egypt](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vii.md): This chapter recounts the death of Joseph in Egypt at the age of 110, during the reigns of Mamitus in Assyria, Plemnaeus in Sicyon, and Argus in Argos. It describes the subsequent 145-year period of the Israelites' growt
- [Chapter VIII: Who Were Kings When Moses Was Born, and What Gods Began to Be Worshipped Then](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-viii.md): This chapter discusses the historical period of Moses' birth, listing contemporary Assyrian, Sicyonian, and Argive kings. It examines the rise of Greek mythology, including figures like Prometheus, Atlas, Mercury, and He
- [The Founding of Athens and Varro's Account of Its Name](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ix.md): Augustine recounts Varro's explanation of how Athens got its name from Minerva (Athena) after a contest between Minerva and Neptune, where women's votes gave Minerva the victory, leading to Neptune's wrath and the subseq
- [Chapter X](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-x.md): Augustine discusses Varro's historical and etymological analysis of the Areopagus, rejecting the fable of Mars being judged there, and also addresses the timing of Deucalion's flood relative to the reign of Cranaos or Ce
- [Chapter XI: The Exodus and the Law Given at Sinai](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xi.md): Moses leads the people out of Egypt during the reign of Cecrops in Athens, receives the law from God at Mount Sinai, and rules the people for forty years in the wilderness. Joshua succeeds Moses, settles the people in th
- [Of the rituals of false gods instituted by the kings of Greece in the period from Israel’s exodus from Egypt down to the death of Joshua the son of Nun](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xii.md): Augustine discusses the rituals instituted by Greek kings during the period from Israel's exodus to Joshua's death, which were meant to commemorate the flood and the subsequent migration of men. He describes various paga
- [XIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiii.md): This chapter recounts the fables invented during the time of the judges of Israel, listing various mythological tales such as those of Triptolemus, the Minotaur, Centaurs, Cerberus, and others, and discusses how these st
- [XIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiv.md): Augustine discusses the theological poets, such as Orpheus, Musaeus, and Linus, who composed hymns about the gods but failed to worship the one true God alone. He notes that these poets, though they sometimes sang of the
- [Of the fall of the kingdom of Argos, when Picus the son of Saturn first received his father’s kingdom of Laurentum](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xv.md): This chapter discusses the transition of power from the kingdom of Argos to Mycene, the rise of the kingdom of Laurentum under King Picus, and the contemporary rule of Deborah in Israel. It also critiques the pagan deifi
- [Chapter XVI: Of Diomede, Who After the Destruction of Troy Was Placed Among the Gods, While His Companions Are Said to Have Been Changed into Birds](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvi.md): This chapter recounts the fall of Troy and the subsequent fate of the Greek hero Diomede, who was deified despite his companions being transformed into birds. It describes the miraculous behavior of these birds at his te
- [XVII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvii.md): Varro recounts incredible tales of human transformations into beasts, including Circe's magic, Arcadian wolf-men, and the story of Demaenetus, linking these myths to the origins of the Roman Luperci and the epithet Lycae
- [Chapter XVIII: On Demonic Transformations and the Need to Flee Babylon](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xviii.md): Augustine discusses the delusions wrought by demons, including alleged transformations of men into beasts. He argues that such changes are not real but are phantasmal illusions permitted by God. He recounts stories of me
- [XIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xix.md): Augustine recounts the arrival of Aeneas in Italy during the time of Abdon, judge of the Hebrews, and traces the subsequent reigns and events in Latium, Athens, Sicyon, and Assyria, including the deification of Aeneas an
- [Of the succession of the line of kings among the Israelites after the times of the judges](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xx.md): This chapter traces the succession of kings in Israel from Saul through Rehoboam, noting the parallel Latin kings surnamed Silvii and the end of Athenian kingship after Codrus. It highlights David's reign, Solomon's buil
- [Of the kings of Latium, the first and twelfth of whom, Aeneas and Aventinus, were made gods](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxi.md): This chapter recounts the kings of Latium, noting that only Aeneas and Aventinus were deified among them, and discusses the founding of Rome, including the story of Romulus and Remus, their birth from Rhea Ilia and Mars,
- [That Rome was founded when the Assyrian kingdom perished, at which time Hezekiah reigned in Judah](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxii.md): Augustine draws a parallel between Rome and Babylon, describing Rome as a second Babylon founded when the Assyrian kingdom fell. He contrasts the swift conquests of Assyria with Rome's slower, more difficult expansion ag
- [Of the Erythraean sibyl, who is known to have sung many things about Christ more plainly than the other sibyls](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiii.md): Augustine discusses the Erythraean sibyl, noting that Varro mentions many sibyls. He recounts that Flaccianus showed him a Greek manuscript of the sibyl's prophecies, which contain acrostic verses spelling out 'Jesus Chr
- [XXIV That the seven sages flourished in the reign of Romulus, when the ten tribes which were called Israel were led into captivity by the Chaldeans, and Romulus, when dead, had divine honours conferred on him.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiv.md): This chapter discusses the reign of Romulus, noting the flourishing of the seven sages (including Thales the Milesian) and the captivity of the ten tribes of Israel by the Chaldeans. It also addresses the deification of 
- [Chapter XXV: Philosophers During the Reigns of Tarquinius Priscus and Zedekiah](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxv.md): This chapter lists the philosophers and sages who flourished during the reigns of Tarquinius Priscus over the Romans and Zedekiah over the Hebrews, at the time of the Jewish captivity in Babylon and the destruction of Je
- [Chapter XXVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxvi.md): This chapter describes the end of the Jewish captivity after seventy years under Cyrus and Darius of Persia, and the simultaneous liberation of the Romans from kingly rule with the expulsion of Tarquin. It also notes the
- [Of the times of the prophets whose oracles are contained in books, and who sang many things about the call of the Gentiles at the time when the Roman kingdom began and the Assyrian came to an end.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxvii.md): Augustine discusses the period when the Assyrian kingdom ended and the Roman kingdom began, noting that at this same time the written prophetic oracles of Hosea, Amos, Isaiah, Micah, Jonah, and Joel appeared. He connects
- [XXVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxviii.md): Augustine interprets prophecies from Hosea and Amos as foretelling the calling of the Gentiles, the unification of Jews and Gentiles under Christ, the eventual belief of carnal Israelites, and the resurrection of Christ 
- [XXIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxix.md): Augustine discusses the prophecies of Isaiah concerning Christ and the Church, noting that Isaiah prophesied more about Christ and the Church than other prophets, to the extent that some call him an evangelist. He quotes
- [What Micah, Jonah, and Joel Prophesied in Accordance with the New Testament](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxx.md): This chapter examines the prophecies of Micah, Jonah, and Joel, showing how they foretell Christ's coming, birth, death, resurrection, and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit. Micah predicts Christ's birth in Bethlehem and
- [Of the predictions concerning the salvation of the world in Christ, in Obadiah, Nahum, and Habakkuk](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxxi.md): Augustine discusses the prophecies of Obadiah, Nahum, and Habakkuk, interpreting their obscure predictions as fulfilled in Christ and the spread of the Gospel. He explains Obadiah's prophecy against Idumea as a figure fo
- [Of the prophecy that is contained in the prayer and song of Habakkuk](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxxii.md): Augustine interprets the prayer and song of Habakkuk as a prophecy of Christ, His crucifixion, the spread of the Gospel, and the salvation of believers. He explains each phrase as referring to Christ's work, the Church, 
- [What Jeremiah and Zephaniah have, by the prophetic Spirit, spoken before concerning Christ and the calling of the nations](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxxiii.md): Augustine discusses the prophecies of Jeremiah and Zephaniah concerning Christ and the calling of the Gentiles. He notes Jeremiah's prophecies about Christ as Lord and sufferer, the new covenant, and the gathering of nat
- [Of the prophecy of Daniel and Ezekiel, other two of the greater prophets.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxxiv.md): This chapter discusses the prophecies of Daniel and Ezekiel during the Babylonian captivity. Daniel precisely foretold the time of Christ's coming and suffering, and Ezekiel prophesied of Christ as the shepherd and king 
- [Of the prophecy of the three prophets, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxxv.md): This chapter examines the prophecies of Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, who prophesied at the close of the Babylonian captivity. Haggai foretells the coming of Christ and the Church, Zechariah prophesies Christ's triumph
- [About Esdras and the Books of the Maccabees](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxxvi.md): This chapter discusses the writings of Esdras and the books of the Maccabees, noting that Esdras is more historical than prophetical, and that the book of Esther relates events near that time. It also mentions a passage 
- [XXXVII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxxvii.md): Augustine argues that the Hebrew prophets are more ancient than the Greek philosophers and even the earliest Greek sages and poets, asserting the priority of biblical wisdom over Gentile philosophy.
- [XXXVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxxviii.md): Augustine explains why certain very ancient writings, such as those attributed to Enoch and Noah, are not included in the ecclesiastical canon. He argues that their great antiquity makes them suspect, as falsehoods could
- [Chapter XXXIX: About the Hebrew Written Characters Which That Language Always Possessed](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxxix.md): Augustine argues that the Hebrew language and its letters were preserved through a succession of patriarchs from Heber onward, not invented at the time of Moses. He refutes claims of other nations, especially Egypt, to g
- [About the Most Mendacious Vanity of the Egyptians](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xl.md): Augustine refutes the Egyptian claim of astronomical knowledge spanning over a hundred thousand years, arguing that such a claim is absurd given that human history, according to divine Scripture, is not yet six thousand 
- [XLI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xli.md): Augustine contrasts the discord and endless disagreements among pagan philosophers regarding the supreme good, the nature of the gods, and the soul, with the harmonious and unified teaching of the canonical Scriptures. H
- [XLII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xlii.md): Augustine explains how the Old Testament Scriptures were translated from Hebrew into Greek under Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, through the miraculous agreement of the seventy-two translators, demonstrating divine 
- [Of the Authority of the Septuagint Translation](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xliii.md): Augustine defends the authority of the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, arguing that the same Holy Spirit inspired both the original prophets and the seventy translators. He acknowledges Jerome's Latin tr
- [XLIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xliv.md): Augustine discusses the apparent discrepancy between the Hebrew and Septuagint versions of Jonah's prophecy to Nineveh—whether it was 'three days' or 'forty days'—and argues that both are divinely inspired and symbolical
- [Chapter XLV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xlv.md): Augustine discusses the cessation of prophets among the Jews after the rebuilding of the temple and their subsequent afflictions under foreign rulers, culminating in the Roman conquest and the birth of Christ. He interpr
- [Of the birth of our Saviour, whereby the Word was made flesh; and of the dispersion of the Jews among all nations, as had been prophesied.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xlvi.md): Augustine recounts the birth of Christ during the reign of Herod and Caesar Augustus, emphasizing the fulfillment of prophecy regarding the virgin birth. He discusses the Jews' rejection of Christ, their subsequent dispe
- [Whether before Christian times there were any outside of the Israelite race who belonged to the fellowship of the heavenly city](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xlvii.md): Augustine argues that even before Christ, there were individuals outside the Israelite race who belonged to the heavenly city, such as Job. He suggests that such persons were granted knowledge of the one Mediator, Christ
- [XLVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xlviii.md): Augustine argues that Haggai's prophecy about the glory of the house of God being greater than the first was fulfilled not in the rebuilding of the temple after the exile, but in the Church of Christ. The rebuilt temple 
- [Of the indiscriminate increase of the Church, wherein many reprobate are in this world mixed with the elect.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xlix.md): Augustine describes the Church in the present age as a mixed body of the elect and reprobate, gathered together like fish in a dragnet until the final separation at the end of the world. He recounts Christ's ministry, pa
- [Of the preaching of the gospel, which is made more famous and powerful by the sufferings of its preachers.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-l.md): Augustine describes how the prophecy of the law going forth from Zion and the word of the Lord from Jerusalem was fulfilled through the preaching of the gospel. He recounts Christ's post-resurrection instructions to His 
- [LI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-li.md): Augustine explains that heretics and enemies of the Church, though they cause grief and persecution, are used by God for the discipline and benefit of the faithful. The devil stirs up opposition, but divine providence te
- [LII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-lii.md): Augustine discusses the number of persecutions the Church has suffered and will suffer, questioning the view that there have been exactly ten persecutions (from Nero to Diocletian and Maximian) and that only the eleventh
- [Of the hidden time of the final persecution](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-liii.md): Augustine discusses the unknowable timing of the final persecution by Antichrist, which Christ will end with His presence. He criticizes those who attempt to calculate the remaining years of the world, citing Christ's st
- [LIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-liv.md): Augustine refutes the pagan prophecy that the Christian religion would last only 365 years, showing that the period has passed and Christianity continues to flourish. He traces the beginning of Christian worship to the s
- [Book XIX: The Ends of the Two Cities](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-book-xix.md): Augustine discusses the ultimate ends of the earthly and heavenly cities, contrasting the vain attempts of philosophers to achieve happiness in this life with the Christian hope of eternal blessedness. He reviews Varro's
- [I](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-i.md): Augustine introduces his discussion of the two cities by examining the many philosophical sects that have attempted to define the supreme good and evil for human happiness. He summarizes Varro's classification of 288 pos
- [II](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ii.md): Varro reduces the multitude of philosophical sects to twelve by removing distinctions that do not pertain to the supreme good, and then further narrows these to three fundamental positions regarding the relationship betw
- [III](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iii.md): Varro, following Antiochus and the Old Academy, defines man as a composite of body and soul, and argues that the highest good consists in the goods of both kinds, with virtue as the supreme good that uses all other goods
- [Chapter IV: The Christian View of Supreme Good and Evil](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iv.md): Augustine contrasts the Christian belief that eternal life is the supreme good and eternal death the supreme evil with the philosophers who seek happiness in this life through virtue or pleasure. He argues that true happ
- [Of the social life, which, though most desirable, is frequently disturbed by many distresses.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-v.md): Augustine discusses the necessity of social life for the City of God, but laments the many miseries that plague human society, including marital troubles, parental cares, the uncertainties of friendship, and the dangers 
- [VI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vi.md): Augustine reflects on the misery and injustice inherent in human judgments, particularly in legal proceedings where judges, unable to discern consciences, are forced to torture innocent witnesses and accused persons, oft
- [Of the diversity of languages, by which the intercourse of men is prevented; and of the misery of wars, even of those called just.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vii.md): Augustine discusses the third circle of human society, the world, and how the diversity of languages separates people more than species differences separate animals. He notes that the imperial city imposed its language a
- [Chapter VIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-viii.md): Augustine reflects on the insecurity of human friendships in this life, where we often mistake friends for enemies and enemies for friends. Even true friendship is fraught with anxiety over potential suffering, betrayal,
- [Of the friendship of the holy angels, which men cannot be sure of in this life, owing to the deceit of the demons who hold in bondage the worshippers of a plurality of gods](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ix.md): Augustine discusses the uncertainty of discerning true holy angels from deceitful demons in this life, noting that even philosophers who sought friendship with gods were misled by malignant demons. He emphasizes the need
- [Chapter X: The Reward of the Saints and the Peace of Eternal Felicity](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-x.md): Augustine describes the reward prepared for the saints after enduring the trials of this life, emphasizing that even the faithful are not immune to demonic temptations. He explains that this state of anxiety serves to st
- [Of the happiness of the eternal peace, which constitutes the end or true perfection of the saints](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xi.md): Augustine discusses peace as the ultimate good and end of the City of God, equating it with eternal life. He explains that Jerusalem means 'Vision of Peace' and that the saints' true perfection lies in eternal peace, whi
- [XII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xii.md): Augustine argues that even war and conflict are ultimately driven by a desire for peace, as every nature seeks peace in some form. He illustrates this through examples of warriors, robbers, and even mythical figures like
- [Chapter XIII: Of the Universal Peace Which the Law of Nature Preserves Through All Disturbances](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiii.md): Augustine defines various forms of peace—bodily, rational, domestic, civil, and celestial—as the tranquillity of order. He argues that even the miserable participate in some peace through their connection to divine order
- [XIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiv.md): Augustine discusses the order and law in heaven and earth, explaining how human society is served by rulers. He contrasts the temporal peace sought by earthly communities with the eternal peace of the City of God, emphas
- [Of the liberty proper to man’s nature, and the servitude introduced by sin](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xv.md): Augustine discusses the natural liberty of man, created to have dominion over irrational creatures, not over other men. He argues that slavery is a result of sin, introduced by human transgression, and that even just war
- [Of Equitable Rule](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvi.md): Augustine discusses the natural order of household governance, where the paterfamilias rules with a view to the eternal welfare of all members, including slaves, and corrects disobedience for the sake of domestic peace. 
- [What produces peace, and what discord, between the heavenly and earthly cities](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvii.md): Augustine contrasts the earthly city, which seeks temporal peace through earthly advantages, with the heavenly city, which lives by faith and uses earthly peace only as a temporary aid while journeying toward eternal pea
- [How different the uncertainty of the New Academy is from the certainty of the Christian faith](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xviii.md): Augustine contrasts the skeptical doubt of the New Academy with the certainty of Christian faith. He asserts that the City of God rejects such doubt as madness, holding absolute certainty in matters apprehended by mind a
- [Of the dress and habits of the Christian people](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xix.md): Augustine discusses that in the City of God, external dress and manner of life are indifferent so long as one lives in conformity with God's commandments. He addresses the three modes of life—contemplative, active, and c
- [Chapter XX: That the saints are in this life blessed in hope](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xx.md): Augustine contrasts the perfect and eternal peace of the city of God with the wretchedness of mortal life, arguing that true blessedness in this life is found only in hope of the future life, not in present possessions o
- [Whether There Ever Was a Roman Republic Answering to the Definitions of Scipio in Cicero's Dialogue](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxi.md): Augustine argues that according to Scipio's definition in Cicero's De Republica, there never was a true Roman republic because true justice requires serving the one true God, and the Romans served impure demons instead. 
- [Whether the God whom the Christians serve is the true God to whom alone sacrifice ought to be paid](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxii.md): Augustine argues that the God of the Christians is the true God, proven by fulfilled prophecies, the blessing of all nations in Abraham's seed through Christ, and even the unwitting testimony of learned pagans like Varro
- [XXIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiii.md): Augustine critiques Porphyry's use of pagan oracles, especially those of Apollo and Hecate, which praise Christ as a pious man but condemn Christians as polluted and in error. He argues that these contradictory demonic t
- [The Definition of a People and a Republic](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiv.md): Augustine redefines a people as an assemblage of reasonable beings united by common objects of love, arguing that the Roman people and their republic fit this definition regardless of their moral quality. He notes that t
- [That where there is no true religion there are no true virtues](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxv.md): Augustine argues that without true religion—specifically, submission to the true God—the soul cannot rightly govern the body nor reason govern the vices. Virtues pursued for their own sake or without reference to God are
- [Of the peace which is enjoyed by the people that are alienated from God, and the use made of it by the people of God in the time of its pilgrimage.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxvi.md): Augustine discusses the temporal peace enjoyed by those alienated from God, noting that even this peace has value and is shared by the people of God during their earthly pilgrimage. He cites Scripture to show that the fa
- [Chapter XXVII: The Imperfect Peace of the Righteous in This Life and the Perfect Peace to Come](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxvii.md): Augustine explains that the peace enjoyed by those who serve God in this mortal life is not perfect, but rather a solace amid misery. True righteousness in this life consists more in the remission of sins than in the per
- [The End of the Wicked](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxviii.md): Augustine contrasts the eternal peace of the righteous with the eternal misery of the wicked, describing the second death as a perpetual conflict between will and passion, pain and body, which never ends. He introduces t
- [Book XX: The Last Judgment and the Resurrection](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-book-xx.md): Augustine discusses the final judgment, distinguishing between the first resurrection (spiritual, occurring now through faith) and the second resurrection (bodily, at the end of time). He interprets scriptural passages f
- [I](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-i.md): Augustine introduces the topic of God's final judgment, distinguishing it from His ongoing judgments throughout history. He affirms the Church's creed that Christ will come from heaven to judge the quick and the dead, an
- [Chapter II: That in the mingled web of human affairs God’s judgment is present, though it cannot be discerned.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ii.md): Augustine reflects on the inscrutability of God's judgments in the present life, where good and evil men alike experience both prosperity and adversity. He argues that this apparent injustice teaches us to value eternal 
- [III](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iii.md): Solomon, the wisest king of Israel, writes in Ecclesiastes that all is vanity under the sun, and that both good and wicked men suffer alike in this life. He emphasizes that the key difference lies not in temporal blessin
- [Chapter IV: Proofs of the Last Judgment from the New and Old Testaments](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iv.md): Augustine explains his method for proving the last judgment by first citing the New Testament and then confirming it with the Old Testament, emphasizing the New Testament's precedence in value over the Old, which acts as
- [Chapter V: The Passages in Which the Saviour Declares That There Shall Be a Divine Judgment in the End of the World](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-v.md): Augustine compiles and interprets several Gospel passages in which Christ explicitly or implicitly foretells a final judgment at the end of the world. He explains that the judgment will occur at the resurrection of the d
- [What is the first resurrection, and what the second](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vi.md): Augustine distinguishes between the first resurrection, which is spiritual and occurs in the present life through faith and obedience, and the second resurrection, which is bodily and occurs at the end of the world. The 
- [What is written in the Revelation of John regarding the two resurrections, and the thousand years, and what may reasonably be held on these points](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vii.md): Augustine interprets the Apocalypse's account of the two resurrections and the binding of Satan for a thousand years. He refutes carnal Millenarian views that anticipate a literal earthly Sabbath of material pleasures, a
- [Of the binding and loosing of the devil](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-viii.md): Augustine discusses the binding and loosing of the devil as described in the Apocalypse of John. He argues that the devil is bound during the thousand years (from Christ's first coming to the end of the world) not in the
- [Chapter IX: The Reign of the Saints with Christ](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ix.md): Augustine explains the nature of the saints' reign with Christ during the thousand years, interpreting it as the present age of the Church militant, where believers reign spiritually through faith and righteousness, dist
- [Chapter X](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-x.md): Augustine addresses those who argue that resurrection pertains only to bodies, not souls, by citing scriptural passages that speak of a resurrection of souls. He explains that the 'first resurrection' in the Apocalypse r
- [Of Gog and Magog, who are to be roused by the devil to persecute the Church, when he is loosed in the end of the world](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xi.md): Augustine interprets the apocalyptic figures of Gog and Magog not as specific barbarian nations but as symbolic of all nations under the devil's sway, who will persecute the Church universally at the end of the world. He
- [Chapter XII: Whether the Fire That Came Down Out of Heaven and Devoured Them Refers to the Last Punishment of the Wicked](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xii.md): Augustine interprets the apocalyptic image of fire coming down from heaven, arguing that it does not refer to the final punishment of the wicked at the Last Judgment, but rather to the firmness of the saints who, by God'
- [Chapter XIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiii.md): Augustine examines whether the three-and-a-half-year persecution by Antichrist is included within the thousand-year reign of the saints and binding of the devil, or is an additional period. He argues that the saints reig
- [XIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiv.md): Augustine discusses the damnation of the devil and his followers, the bodily resurrection of the dead, and the final judgment as revealed in the Apocalypse. He interprets the beast as the wicked city and the false prophe
- [XV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xv.md): Augustine interprets the judgment scene in Revelation, explaining that the 'sea' represents the world containing the living who are to be judged, while 'death and hell' give up the dead. He distinguishes the good, who ex
- [Of the new heaven and the new earth](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvi.md): Augustine discusses the prophecy of a new heaven and a new earth after the final judgment, explaining that the corruptible elements of the world will be consumed by fire and transformed to suit immortal bodies. He reflec
- [Of the endless glory of the Church](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvii.md): Augustine reflects on the vision of the new Jerusalem descending from heaven, interpreting it as the ultimate glorification of the Church at the end of time. He argues that the promise of no more death, sorrow, or pain r
- [What the Apostle Peter predicted regarding the last judgment](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xviii.md): Augustine examines the Apostle Peter's prophecy concerning the last judgment, focusing on the destruction of the world by fire, the preservation of the saints, and the promise of new heavens and a new earth where righteo
- [XIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xix.md): Augustine examines the Apostle Paul's teachings to the Thessalonians regarding the manifestation of Antichrist before the day of the Lord. He discusses various interpretations of Paul's obscure statements about what 'wit
- [Chapter XX: The Resurrection of the Dead at Christ's Coming](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xx.md): Augustine discusses the resurrection of the dead at the final judgment, focusing on the fate of those alive at Christ's coming. He argues that they will briefly die and be resurrected in the air, reconciling scriptural p
- [Chapter XXI: Utterances of the Prophet Isaiah Regarding the Resurrection of the Dead and the Retributive Judgment](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxi.md): Augustine interprets Isaiah's prophecies concerning the resurrection of the dead and the final judgment. He distinguishes between the resurrection of the blessed and the damnation of the wicked, emphasizing that the prom
- [What is meant by the good going out to see the punishment of the wicked](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxii.md): Augustine explains that the righteous will not physically go to witness the punishment of the wicked, but will 'go out by knowledge,' understanding what happens outside their blessed state. He discusses the nature of ete
- [What Daniel Predicted Regarding the Persecution of Antichrist, the Judgment of God, and the Kingdom of the Saints](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiii.md): Augustine interprets Daniel's prophecies concerning the coming of Antichrist, the last judgment, and the eternal reign of the saints. He explains the vision of four beasts representing four kingdoms, the short but fierce
- [Chapter XXIV: Passages from the Psalms of David which predict the end of the world and the last judgment](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiv.md): Augustine cites Psalms 102:25-27 and Psalm 50 to argue that the Hebrew scriptures themselves predict the end of the world and the last judgment, countering Porphyry's criticism of Christian belief in the world's perishin
- [Of Malachi's prophecy, in which he speaks of the last judgment, and of a cleansing which some are to undergo by purifying punishments](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxv.md): Augustine interprets Malachi's prophecy concerning the last judgment, emphasizing that some will undergo purifying punishments. He draws parallels with Isaiah and discusses how the Church, purified by judgment and fire, 
- [XXVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxvi.md): Augustine discusses the sacrifices offered by the saints in the future age, arguing that the prophecy of sacrifices 'as in the primitive days and former years' refers not to a return of Old Testament legal sacrifices but
- [Of the separation of the good and the bad, which proclaim the discriminating influence of the last judgment.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxvii.md): Augustine discusses the prophecy of Malachi concerning the last judgment, emphasizing the ultimate separation of the righteous from the wicked, a distinction that will be made manifest under the Sun of righteousness in e
- [Chapter XXVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxviii.md): Augustine explains that the law of Moses must be understood spiritually, not carnally, to avoid murmuring against God. He connects this to the prophecy of the last judgment, where the righteous will enjoy eternal felicit
- [Of the coming of Elijah before the judgment, that the Jews may be converted to Christ by his preaching and explanation of Scripture](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxix.md): Augustine discusses the prophecy of Elijah's coming before the Last Judgment, explaining that Elijah will convert the Jews by giving a spiritual interpretation of the law, turning their hearts to understand Christ as the
- [The Last Judgment and the Prophetic Witness](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxx.md): Augustine discusses the events of the Last Judgment, affirming that Christ will judge the world, the dead will rise, the good and wicked will be separated, and the world will be burned and renewed. He cites Old Testament
- [Book XXI: The Eternal Punishment of the Damned](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-book-xxi.md): Augustine discusses the eternal punishment reserved for the devil and his followers, arguing that it is not incredible for bodies to endure everlasting torments. He addresses objections from those who doubt such punishme
- [Of the order of the discussion, which requires that we first speak of the eternal punishment of the lost in company with the devil, and then of the eternal happiness of the saints.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-i.md): Augustine explains his decision to discuss the eternal punishment of the lost and the devil before the eternal happiness of the saints, arguing that proving the credibility of everlasting torments for the body will make 
- [Whether it is possible for bodies to last forever in burning fire](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ii.md): Augustine argues for the possibility of human bodies enduring eternal fire by citing natural examples of creatures that live in flames or hot springs, challenging skeptics to accept divine power as the basis for such mir
- [Chapter III](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iii.md): Augustine argues that bodily suffering does not necessarily lead to death, using the example of the immortal soul which can suffer pain yet cannot die. He contends that in the afterlife, the bodies of the damned will end
- [Chapter IV: Examples from Nature Proving That Bodies May Remain Unconsumed and Alive in Fire](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iv.md): Augustine argues that the possibility of eternal punishment in fire is not incredible, using natural examples such as the salamander living in fire, the enduring flames of Sicilian mountains, the antiseptic property of p
- [Chapter V: That There Are Many Things Which Reason Cannot Account For, and Which Are Nevertheless True](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-v.md): Augustine argues that many natural marvels exist which cannot be explained by reason, yet are undeniably true. He uses this to defend the credibility of biblical miracles and future events, asserting that human inability
- [That All Marvels Are Not of Nature's Production, but That Some Are Due to Human Ingenuity and Others to Diabolic Contrivance](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vi.md): Augustine addresses pagan objections to miraculous accounts by distinguishing between natural marvels, human contrivances, and diabolic works. He uses the example of an inextinguishable lamp in Venus's temple to argue th
- [VII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vii.md): Augustine argues that the ultimate reason for believing in miracles, including the resurrection of the dead and eternal punishment, is the omnipotence of God the Creator. He points to countless natural marvels—such as th
- [Chapter VIII: That It Is Not Contrary to Nature That, in an Object Whose Nature Is Known, There Should Be Discovered an Alteration of the Properties Which Have Been Known as Its Natural Properties](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-viii.md): Augustine argues that apparent miracles or portents are not contrary to nature, but only contrary to human knowledge of nature, since all nature is subject to God's will. He cites Varro's account of a change in the star 
- [IX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ix.md): Augustine discusses the nature of eternal punishments, focusing on the biblical imagery of unquenchable fire and the undying worm. He examines interpretations of whether these punishments affect the body, the soul, or bo
- [Chapter X: The Nature of Hellfire and the Punishment of Spirits](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-x.md): Augustine explores the nature of hellfire, questioning whether material fire can torment immaterial spirits like devils. He suggests that devils may have aerial bodies or that immaterial spirits can be pained by material
- [Whether it is just that the punishments of sins last longer than the sins themselves lasted](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xi.md): Augustine defends the justice of eternal punishment for temporal sins by arguing that the duration of punishment is not determined by the duration of the offense but by the severity of the crime. He cites various legal p
- [Chapter XII: Of the greatness of the first transgression, on account of which eternal punishment is due to all who are not within the pale of the Saviour’s grace.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xii.md): Augustine argues that the first transgression was so great that it merits eternal punishment for all humanity, as it was a willful abandonment of God, who is the highest good. He explains that the entire human race is co
- [Chapter XIII: Against the Opinion of Those Who Think That the Punishments of the Wicked After Death Are Purgatorial](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiii.md): Augustine argues against the Platonic view that all punishments after death are purgatorial and remedial. He acknowledges that some punishments in this life are purgatorial for those who amend their ways, but insists tha
- [XIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiv.md): Augustine discusses the temporary punishments of this life, arguing that human life itself is a punishment due to its inherent temptations and ignorance. He notes that even those who escape physical suffering still endur
- [XV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xv.md): Augustine explains that the grace of God in rescuing us from sin pertains to the future world, where all things are made new. He reflects on the heavy yoke laid upon the sons of Adam as a painful but admirable monitor te
- [Chapter XVI: The Laws of Grace Across the Ages of the Regenerate](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvi.md): Augustine discusses the application of God's grace through the sacraments of the Mediator to the different ages of human life, from infancy to adulthood. He explains that even infants and young children who have received
- [Of those who fancy that no men shall be punished eternally](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvii.md): Augustine engages in a friendly debate with tender-hearted Christians who believe that the punishment of the condemned will be temporary rather than eternal. He contrasts their view with Origen's even more indulgent opin
- [Chapter XVIII: Of those who fancy that, on account of the saints’ intercession, no man shall be damned in the last judgment.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xviii.md): Augustine addresses those who believe that at the Last Judgment, God's mercy will prevail over His justice, and that the saints' intercessions will secure the salvation of all men, including the wicked and unbelieving. H
- [Of those who promise impunity from all sins even to heretics, through virtue of their participation of the body of Christ.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xix.md): Augustine discusses those who believe that participation in the body of Christ, through baptism and the Eucharist, guarantees deliverance from eternal punishment regardless of one's life or heresy, citing Jesus' words ab
- [Of those who promise this indulgence not to all, but only to those who have been baptized as catholics, though afterwards they have broken out into many crimes and heresies.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xx.md): Augustine discusses the views of those who promise eternal life only to baptized Catholics, even if they later fall into heresy or idolatry, arguing that their participation in the sacraments within the Catholic Church e
- [Chapter XXI: Of those who assert that all catholics who continue in the faith, even though by the depravity of their lives they have merited hell fire, shall be saved on account of the “foundation” of their faith.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxi.md): Augustine discusses the view that Catholic Christians who remain in the faith but live depraved lives will still be saved through the foundation of Christ, as interpreted from 1 Corinthians 3:11-15. He presents the argum
- [Of those who fancy that the sins which are intermingled with alms-deeds shall not be charged at the day of judgment](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxii.md): Augustine addresses the erroneous belief that sins mixed with alms-deeds will not be punished at the Last Judgment. He refutes those who cite James 2:13 and Matthew 25:34-46 to argue that mercy shown through forgiveness 
- [Chapter XXIII: Against Those Who Deny the Eternity of Punishment for the Devil and Wicked Men](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiii.md): Augustine argues against the notion that the punishment of the devil or wicked men will be temporary, asserting that Scripture clearly teaches eternal punishment for both. He cites passages such as Matthew 25:41 and Reve
- [XXIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiv.md): Augustine argues against those who believe that at the Last Judgment, the prayers of the saints will spare all the accused from eternal punishment. He contends that just as the Church does not pray for the devil and his 
- [Chapter XXV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxv.md): Augustine argues that neither heretical baptism nor Catholic baptism guarantees salvation if one lives immorally, falls into heresy, or persists in sin. He refutes those who claim that partaking of Christ's body and bloo
- [What it is to have Christ for a foundation, and who they are to whom salvation as by fire is promised](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxvi.md): Augustine explores the metaphor of Christ as the foundation of a building, arguing that those who have genuine faith in Christ as their foundation—preferring Him above all earthly and temporal things—will be saved even i
- [XXVII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxvii.md): Augustine refutes those who believe that almsgiving can excuse persistent sin, arguing that true charity requires repentance and a change of life, not a license to continue in wickedness. He emphasizes that the Lord's Pr
- [Book XXII: The Eternal Blessedness of the City of God and the Resurrection of the Body](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-book-xxii.md): This final book discusses the eternal happiness of the saints in the city of God, emphasizing the resurrection of the body and the fulfillment of God's promises. Augustine argues against pagan philosophers who deny the p
- [Of the creation of angels and men](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-i.md): Augustine concludes his work by discussing the eternal blessedness of the City of God, emphasizing its immortality and the role of God as the almighty Founder. He reflects on the creation of angels and humans, the gift o
- [Of the eternal and unchangeable will of God](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ii.md): Augustine explains that while wicked men act contrary to God's will, God's wisdom and power ensure that all things ultimately serve His just and good purposes. He clarifies that when God is said to change His will, it is
- [Of the promise of eternal blessedness to the saints, and everlasting punishment to the wicked](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iii.md): Augustine affirms that just as God fulfilled His promise to Abraham that all nations would be blessed in his seed (fulfilled in Christ), so too will He fulfill the prophecies of the resurrection of the dead, the creation
- [Against the Wise Men Who Deny the Resurrection of the Body](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-iv.md): Augustine refutes the argument of pagan philosophers who claim that earthly bodies cannot be transferred to a heavenly habitation, citing Cicero's assertion that nature does not permit a body of earth to exist anywhere e
- [Chapter V: Of the Resurrection of the Flesh, Which Some Refuse to Believe, Though the World at Large Believes It](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-v.md): Augustine argues that the resurrection of the flesh, though once incredible, is now believed by the whole world, as evidenced by the widespread faith in Christ's resurrection and ascension. He presents three incredibles:
- [VI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vi.md): Augustine contrasts the earthly city's deification of Romulus, driven by love and political coercion, with the heavenly city's worship of Christ, founded on faith, prophecy, and miracles. He argues that while Rome forced
- [VII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-vii.md): Augustine argues that the world's belief in Christ's resurrection and ascension is due to divine power and miraculous signs, not human persuasion, contrasting it with the false divinity of Romulus. He notes that if Romul
- [Chapter VIII: Miracles of the Martyr Stephen and the Power of Faith](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-viii.md): Augustine recounts numerous miracles performed through the relics of Saint Stephen, including healings, resurrections, and conversions, emphasizing the power of Christian faith and the divine presence in the contemporary
- [IX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-ix.md): Augustine argues that the miracles performed through the martyrs in Christ's name testify to the faith that proclaims Christ's resurrection in the flesh and ascension into heaven. The martyrs, as witnesses of this faith,
- [Chapter X: The Greater Honor of Martyrs Compared to Demons](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-x.md): Augustine argues that the miracles performed by Christian martyrs are far more honorable than those attributed to pagan gods, because the martyrs do not seek to be worshipped as gods but rather direct all glory to the on
- [Chapter XI: Against the Platonists' Arguments from the Elements](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xi.md): Augustine refutes the Platonist argument that earthly bodies cannot inhabit heaven due to the natural order and weights of the elements. He argues that God's omnipotence can transform the human body, just as lesser gods 
- [XII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xii.md): Augustine defends the Christian doctrine of the resurrection of the body against pagan ridicule, addressing objections about the fate of abortions, children, bodily stature, hair, nails, fatness, leanness, and the digest
- [Whether Abortions, If They Are Numbered Among the Dead, Shall Not Also Have a Part in the Resurrection](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiii.md): Augustine addresses the question of whether unborn children who die in the womb will be resurrected. He refrains from making a definitive assertion but argues that if they are counted among the dead, they should not be e
- [Whether infants shall rise in that body which they would have had had they grown up.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xiv.md): Augustine discusses the resurrection of infants, arguing that they will not rise in the diminutive body in which they died but will receive by God's miraculous power the perfect stature they would have attained through n
- [Whether the bodies of all the dead shall rise the same size as the Lord’s body](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xv.md): Augustine argues that at the resurrection, each person will receive the body size they had in youth, not necessarily the size of Christ's body, because Christ promised that not a hair would perish. He interprets the apos
- [Chapter XVI: What is meant by the conforming of the saints to the image of the Son of God](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvi.md): Augustine explores the concept of believers being conformed to the image of the Son of God, interpreting it both as an inner transformation of the mind and as a future bodily resurrection. He discusses the nature of the 
- [Whether the Bodies of Women Shall Retain Their Own Sex in the Resurrection](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xvii.md): Augustine argues that women will retain their sex in the resurrection, contrary to those who interpret certain scriptures as implying all will become male. He asserts that sex is a natural creation, not a vice, and that 
- [Of the perfect Man, that is, Christ; and of His body, that is, the Church, which is His fullness.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xviii.md): Augustine explains the Pauline concept of the 'perfect man' as Christ together with His body, the Church. He interprets Ephesians 4:10-16 to show that the Church is being built up through apostles, prophets, evangelists,
- [XIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xix.md): Augustine discusses the resurrection of the body, arguing that all bodily blemishes and deformities will be removed while the natural substance remains. He uses the analogy of a potter remaking a vessel to explain how th
- [The Resurrection of the Body: Reunion and Restoration](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xx.md): Augustine addresses concerns about the resurrection of the body, arguing that God's omnipotence ensures the reunion of all bodily substance, even if consumed by beasts, fire, or other humans. He resolves the difficult qu
- [Of the new spiritual body into which the flesh of the saints shall be transformed](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxi.md): Augustine discusses the resurrection of the body, affirming that every part of the body, even if destroyed or scattered, will be restored by God's omnipotence. The flesh will be transformed from an animal body to a spiri
- [Of the Miseries and Ills to Which the Human Race Is Justly Exposed Through the First Sin, and from Which None Can Be Delivered Save by Christ’s Grace](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxii.md): Augustine argues that the whole human race is justly condemned through the first sin, as evidenced by the countless miseries of earthly life—ignorance, disordered desires, physical and moral evils, and natural disasters.
- [Of the miseries of this life which attach peculiarly to the toil of good men, irrespective of those which are common to the good and bad.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiii.md): Augustine discusses the unique struggles of the righteous in this life, who must constantly wage war against their own vices and temptations, such as lust, deceit, fear, and anger. He emphasizes that victory over these s
- [XXIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxiv.md): Augustine reflects on the blessings God has bestowed upon human nature even after the Fall, emphasizing that while sin and punishment entered the world, God did not withdraw all His gifts. He highlights the ongoing work 
- [XXV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxv.md): Augustine addresses those who obstinately deny the resurrection of the body, noting that despite philosophical objections, the whole world has believed in Christ's resurrection and the promise of bodily resurrection. He 
- [XXVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxvi.md): Augustine argues against Porphyry's claim that the soul must be separated from every kind of body to be blessed, using Plato's own words about the gods being promised immortality in their celestial bodies to show that Go
- [XXVII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxvii.md): Augustine examines the conflicting opinions of Plato and Porphyry regarding the return of purified souls to bodies, suggesting that if each had accepted the other's insight—Plato that souls return to bodies and Porphyry 
- [XXVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxviii.md): Augustine discusses various pagan and philosophical views on resurrection, including those of Plato, Labeo, and Varro, and argues that if these thinkers had combined their insights they would have arrived at the Christia
- [Of the Beatific Vision](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxix.md): Augustine contemplates the nature of the saints' employment in the resurrection, focusing on the beatific vision of God. He discusses the limitations of human understanding, the peace of God that surpasses all understand
- [The Eternal Felicity of the City of God and the Perpetual Sabbath](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/part-ii-xxx.md): Augustine describes the eternal felicity of the City of God, where there is no evil, no lack, and perpetual leisure for praising God. He discusses the nature of the resurrected body, true peace, and the reward of God Him
- [Endnotes](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/the_city_of_god_se/chapters/endnotes.md): This chapter provides extensive endnotes and references for the main text of Augustine's City of God, including citations from classical authors, scripture, and later commentators. It contextualizes Augustine's arguments

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