# Leviathan — Chapters explained

> Chapter companions for Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes.

- [Dedication](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/dedication.md): Thomas Hobbes dedicates his work 'Leviathan' to Mr. Francis Godolphin, honoring his deceased brother Sidney Godolphin and explaining his intent to navigate between excessive liberty and excessive authority in advancing c
- [Leviathan](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/leviathan.md): The opening of Hobbes's Leviathan introduces the work's central concern: the matter, form, and power of a commonwealth, both ecclesiastical and civil. It sets the stage for a systematic inquiry into human nature, the soc
- [Part I: Of Man](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/part-i-of-man.md): Hobbes introduces his philosophical anthropology, beginning with sensation and imagination, then moving to the passions, speech, reason, and the voluntary motions that drive human action. He lays the groundwork for under
- [I: Of Sense](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/i-of-sense.md): Hobbes begins his examination of human thought by analyzing sense perception. He argues that all conceptions originate from sensory experience, where external objects press upon bodily organs, causing motions that produc
- [Of Imagination](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/ii-of-imagination.md): Hobbes defines imagination as 'decaying sense,' explaining how sensory impressions persist and fade over time. He distinguishes between simple and compound imagination, discusses dreams as products of bodily motions, and
- [III: Of the Consequence or Train of Imaginations](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/iii-of-the-consequence-or-train-of-imaginations.md): Hobbes explores the nature of mental discourse, distinguishing between unguided trains of thought and regulated sequences directed by desire or design. He examines how memory, experience, and prudence shape our ability t
- [Of Speech](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/iv-of-speech.md): Hobbes explores the origin, use, and abuse of speech, emphasizing its role in enabling reason, science, and the registration of thought through names and definitions. He distinguishes between proper and universal names, 
- [Of Reason and Science](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/v-of-reason-and-science.md): Hobbes defines reason as a form of reckoning—adding and subtracting consequences of general names. He distinguishes between prudence (gained by experience) and science (certain knowledge of consequences), warns against a
- [VI: Of the Interior Beginnings of Voluntary Motions; Commonly Called the Passions; and the Speeches by Which They Are Expressed](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/vi-of-the-interior-beginnings-of-voluntary-motions-commonly-called-the-passions-and-the-speeches-by-which-they-are-expressed.md): This chapter defines the internal origins of voluntary motion, distinguishing vital from animal motions. It introduces 'endeavour' as the small beginning of motion, leading to appetite/desire and aversion. Hobbes systema
- [VII: Of the Ends, or Resolutions of Discourse](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/vii-of-the-ends-or-resolutions-of-discourse.md): Hobbes examines the ends of discourse, distinguishing between opinion, judgment, science, and faith. He argues that no discourse can yield absolute knowledge of fact, only conditional knowledge of consequences. He explor
- [VIII: Of the Virtues Commonly Called Intellectual, and Their Contrary Defects](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/viii-of-the-virtues-commonly-called-intellectual-and-their-contrary-defects.md): Hobbes distinguishes between natural wit (fancy and judgment) and acquired wit (reason and science), arguing that differences in wit arise from passions, especially the desire for power. He explores how excessive passion
- [Of the Several Subjects of Knowledge](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/ix-of-the-several-subjects-of-knowledge.md): Hobbes distinguishes between two kinds of knowledge: knowledge of fact (sense and memory, recorded as history) and knowledge of the consequence of one affirmation to another (science, recorded in books of philosophy). He
- [X: Of Power, Worth, Dignity, Honour, and Worthiness](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/x-of-power-worth-dignity-honour-and-worthiness.md): This chapter defines power as a man's present means to obtain future apparent good, distinguishing between natural and instrumental power. It explores how power is compounded through consent in a commonwealth or faction,
- [Of the Difference of Manners](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xi-of-the-difference-of-manners.md): Hobbes defines 'manners' as the qualities of mankind that affect their living together in peace and unity, rather than mere social decorum. He argues that felicity is not a final end but a continual progress of desire, d
- [XII: Of Religion](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xii-of-religion.md): Hobbes explores the natural seeds of religion in man, distinguishing between human politics (civil religion) and divine politics (the kingdom of God). He critiques the polytheistic and idolatrous practices of the Gentile
- [XIII: Of the Natural Condition of Mankind as Concerning Their Felicity and Misery](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xiii-of-the-natural-condition-of-mankind-as-concerning-their-felicity-and-misery.md): Hobbes describes the natural condition of mankind as a state of war of every man against every man, arising from equality of ability, diffidence, and glory. In this state, there is no justice, property, or society, and l
- [Of the First and Second Natural Laws, and of Contracts](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xiv-of-the-first-and-second-natural-laws-and-of-contracts.md): Hobbes defines the right of nature as the liberty each man has to use his own power for self-preservation, and distinguishes it from a law of nature, which is a precept of reason forbidding what is destructive to life. F
- [XV: Of Other Laws of Nature](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xv-of-other-laws-of-nature.md): Hobbes derives additional laws of nature from the fundamental law of seeking peace, including the obligation to perform covenants (the foundation of justice), the need for a coercive power to enforce covenants, the disti
- [Of Persons, Authors, and Things Personated](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xvi-of-persons-authors-and-things-personated.md): Hobbes defines a person as one whose words or actions are considered either as his own (natural person) or as representing another (artificial person). He distinguishes between the actor (who performs) and the author (wh
- [Part II: Of Commonwealth](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/part-ii-of-commonwealth.md): This part of the work begins the systematic discussion of the formation, rights, and nature of a commonwealth, exploring the transition from the state of nature to civil society through the institution of a sovereign pow
- [Of the Causes, Generation, and Definition of a Commonwealth](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xvii-of-the-causes-generation-and-definition-of-a-commonwealth.md): Hobbes explains why men, driven by natural passions and the desire for self-preservation, willingly submit to a common power to escape the state of war. He argues that covenants without a sword are insufficient, and that
- [Of the Rights of Sovereigns by Institution](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xviii-of-the-rights-of-sovereigns-by-institution.md): This chapter outlines the rights and faculties derived from the institution of a commonwealth by covenant. Hobbes argues that subjects cannot make a new covenant without the sovereign's permission, that the sovereign mak
- [XIX: Of the Several Kinds of Commonwealth by Institution, and of Succession to the Sovereign Power](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xix-of-the-several-kinds-of-commonwealth-by-institution-and-of-succession-to-the-sovereign-power.md): Hobbes delineates the three forms of commonwealth—monarchy, democracy, and aristocracy—based on who holds sovereign power. He argues that other names like tyranny or oligarchy are merely pejorative labels for these same 
- [XX: Of Dominion Paternal, and Despotical](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xx-of-dominion-paternal-and-despotical.md): Hobbes distinguishes between commonwealths by institution and by acquisition, arguing that both are founded on fear and yield the same absolute sovereign rights. He examines paternal and despotical dominion, asserting th
- [XXI: Of the Liberty of Subjects](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xxi-of-the-liberty-of-subjects.md): Hobbes defines liberty as the absence of external impediments to motion, distinguishing it from power. He argues that in a commonwealth, subjects retain liberty only in matters the sovereign has not regulated by law. He 
- [Of Systems Subject, Political, and Private](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xxii-of-systems-subject-political-and-private.md): Hobbes categorizes systems as regular or irregular, and subordinate systems as political (authorized by the sovereign) or private. He discusses the limits of power in bodies politic, the nature of provinces and colonies,
- [XXIII: Of the Public Ministers of Sovereign Power](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xxiii-of-the-public-ministers-of-sovereign-power.md): Hobbes defines public ministers as those authorized by the sovereign to represent the commonwealth in specific affairs, distinguishing them from private servants. He categorizes ministers into those with general administ
- [Of the Nutrition and Procreation of a Commonwealth](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xxiv-of-the-nutrition-and-procreation-of-a-commonwealth.md): Hobbes discusses the sustenance and expansion of a commonwealth, comparing it to a natural body. He covers the distribution of land and property as acts of the sovereign, the role of money as the 'blood' of the commonwea
- [Of Counsel](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xxv-of-counsel.md): Hobbes distinguishes counsel from command, emphasizing that true counsel aims at the benefit of the advised, not the advisor. He warns against exhortation and dehortation as corrupt forms of counsel, and outlines the qua
- [Of Civil Laws](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xxvi-of-civil-laws.md): Hobbes examines the nature and authority of civil laws, arguing that they derive their force from the sovereign will and are intertwined with the law of Nature. He discusses the necessity of publishing laws, the distinct
- [Of Crimes, Excuses, and Extenuations](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xxvii-of-crimes-excuses-and-extenuations.md): Hobbes distinguishes between sin and crime, defines crime as a sin that can be judged by human authority, and examines the sources of crime: ignorance, erroneous opinion, and passion. He discusses how ignorance of the la
- [Of Punishments and Rewards](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xxviii-of-punishments-and-rewards.md): Hobbes defines punishment as an evil inflicted by public authority for a transgression of the law, intended to dispose men to obedience. He argues that the sovereign's right to punish is not granted by subjects but is re
- [Of Those Things That Weaken, or Tend to the Dissolution of a Commonwealth](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xxix-of-those-things-that-weaken-or-tend-to-the-dissolution-of-a-commonwealth.md): Hobbes identifies doctrines and practices that undermine the commonwealth, including private judgment of good and evil, the belief that sovereign power can be divided, the influence of classical republican writings, and 
- [Of the Office of the Sovereign Representative](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xxx-of-the-office-of-the-sovereign-representative.md): This chapter defines the sovereign's office as securing the safety of the people, which includes not only preservation but also the lawful pursuit of life's contentments. The sovereign must maintain essential rights of s
- [Of the Kingdom of God by Nature](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xxxi-of-the-kingdom-of-god-by-nature.md): Hobbes distinguishes between the natural and prophetic kingdoms of God, grounding God's sovereignty not in creation or gratitude but in His irresistible power. He argues that natural laws and worship are dictated by reas
- [Part III: Of a Christian Commonwealth](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/part-iii-of-a-christian-commonwealth.md): Hobbes examines the relationship between Christian doctrine and civil authority, arguing that sovereign power must govern religious interpretation to prevent civil discord, and that scripture supports absolute sovereignt
- [Of the Principles of Christian Politics](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xxxii-of-the-principles-of-christian-politics.md): Hobbes transitions from natural principles to the foundations of Christian commonwealths, arguing that reason and Scripture are complementary, not contradictory. He examines how to discern true prophecy, emphasizing that
- [XXXIII: Of the Number, Antiquity, Scope, Authority, and Interpreters of the Books of Holy Scripture](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xxxiii-of-the-number-antiquity-scope-authority-and-interpreters-of-the-books-of-holy-scripture.md): Hobbes examines the authority and canon of the Holy Scriptures, arguing that they become law only through the sovereign's legislative power. He distinguishes between obedience to God and the human determination of what G
- [XXXIV: Of the Signification of Spirit, Angel, and Inspiration in the Books of Holy Scripture](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xxxiv-of-the-signification-of-spirit-angel-and-inspiration-in-the-books-of-holy-scripture.md): Hobbes examines the biblical meanings of 'body,' 'spirit,' 'angel,' and 'inspiration,' arguing that 'incorporeal substance' is a contradiction and that scriptural references to spirits and angels often denote material or
- [Of the Signification in Scripture of Kingdom of God, of Holy, Sacred, and Sacrament](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xxxv-of-the-signification-in-scripture-of-kingdom-of-god-of-holy-sacred-and-sacrament.md): Hobbes argues that the 'Kingdom of God' in Scripture properly signifies a literal monarchy established by covenant between God and the people of Israel, not merely eternal felicity or sanctification. He traces this kingd
- [XXXVI: Of the Word of God, and of Prophets](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xxxvi-of-the-word-of-god-and-of-prophets.md): Hobbes examines the multiple meanings of 'the Word of God' in Scripture, distinguishing between God's spoken words, His decrees, and the doctrine of Christian religion. He then discusses the nature of prophets, true and 
- [XXXVII: Of Miracles, and Their Use](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xxxvii-of-miracles-and-their-use.md): Hobbes defines miracles as works done by the immediate hand of God, not by any virtue of the prophet or created spirit. He argues that apparent miracles performed by enchantment or magic are actually impostures and delus
- [XXXVIII: Of the Signification in Scripture of Eternal Life, Hell, Salvation, the World to Come, and Redemption](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xxxviii-of-the-signification-in-scripture-of-eternal-life-hell-salvation-the-world-to-come-and-redemption.md): This chapter examines the scriptural meanings of eternal life, hell, salvation, the world to come, and redemption. Hobbes argues that eternal life and eternal torment are the ultimate rewards and punishments that underpi
- [Of the Signification in Scripture of the Word Church](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xxxix-of-the-signification-in-scripture-of-the-word-church.md): Hobbes examines the various meanings of the word 'Church' in Scripture, distinguishing between its use for a physical building, a lawful assembly, the whole multitude of Christians, and a particular congregation. He defi
- [XL: Of the Rights of the Kingdom of God, in Abraham, Moses, the High Priests, and the Kings of Judah](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xl-of-the-rights-of-the-kingdom-of-god-in-abraham-moses-the-high-priests-and-the-kings-of-judah.md): This chapter examines the rights of God's kingdom as established through Abraham, Moses, the high priests, and the kings of Judah. Hobbes argues that Abraham's covenant with God established a model where the sovereign (l
- [Of the Office of Our Blessed Saviour](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xli-of-the-office-of-our-blessed-saviour.md): Hobbes delineates the threefold office of the Messiah as Redeemer, Prophet/Teacher, and King, corresponding to His first coming, the present age of conversion, and His future eternal reign. He explains that Christ's sacr
- [Of Power Ecclesiastical](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xlii-of-power-ecclesiastical.md): Hobbes examines the claim that the Pope holds supreme spiritual authority over civil sovereigns, arguing that such a division of power is incoherent and dangerous. He contends that all power, including ecclesiastical, ul
- [XLIII: Of What Is Necessary for a Man’s Reception Into the Kingdom of Heaven](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xliii-of-what-is-necessary-for-a-man-s-reception-into-the-kingdom-of-heaven.md): Hobbes resolves the apparent conflict between obedience to God and obedience to the civil sovereign by distinguishing what is necessary for salvation. He argues that only faith in Christ (that Jesus is the Christ) and ob
- [Part IV: Of the Kingdom of Darkness](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/part-iv-of-the-kingdom-of-darkness.md): Hobbes defines the Kingdom of Darkness as a confederacy of deceivers that, through false doctrines and misinterpretations of Scripture, obscure the true law of nature and civil authority, leading men away from the light 
- [Of Spiritual Darkness, from Misinterpretation of Scripture](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xliv-of-spiritual-darkness-from-misinterpretation-of-scripture.md): Hobbes argues that the kingdom of darkness is a confederacy of deceivers who use erroneous doctrines to extinguish the light of nature and the Gospel. He identifies four main sources of spiritual error: abuse of Scriptur
- [Of Demonology, and Other Relics of the Religion of the Gentiles](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xlv-of-demonology-and-other-relics-of-the-religion-of-the-gentiles.md): Hobbes examines the distinction between civil and divine worship, arguing that idolatry consists in worshipping finite objects as gods without divine authority. He traces the origins of many Christian ceremonies—such as 
- [XLVI: Of Darkness from Vain Philosophy and Fabulous Traditions](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xlvi-of-darkness-from-vain-philosophy-and-fabulous-traditions.md): Hobbes critiques vain philosophy, particularly Aristotelian 'separated essences,' for fostering superstitions like ghosts and transubstantiation, which undermine civil obedience. He defines true philosophy as reasoning f
- [Of the Benefit That Proceedeth from Such Darkness, and to Whom It Accrueth](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/xlvii-of-the-benefit-that-proceedeth-from-such-darkness-and-to-whom-it-accrueth.md): Hobbes applies the principle of 'cui bono' (who benefits) to identify the authors of spiritual darkness in Christendom. He argues that the doctrine that the Church on earth is the Kingdom of Christ primarily benefits the
- [A Review, and Conclusion](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/leviathan_se/chapters/a-review-and-conclusion.md): Hobbes concludes his discourse by emphasizing the mutual relation between protection and obedience, warning against the dangers of justifying conquest by right rather than possession, and clarifying the nature of conques

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