# Discourses on Livy — Chapters explained

> Chapter companions for Discourses on Livy by Niccolò Machiavelli.

- [Dedication](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/dedication.md): Machiavelli dedicates his Discourses to Zanobi Buondelmonti and Cosimo Rucellai, offering his work as the greatest gift he can give, drawn from long experience and study. He contrasts his choice of dedicating to worthy p
- [Discourses on Livy](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/discourses-on-livy.md): Machiavelli's Discourses on Livy is a commentary on the first ten books of Livy's history of Rome, exploring the political and military institutions that made Rome great. The work examines the interplay of liberty, class
- [Book I](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/book-i.md): Machiavelli introduces his project of recovering the political wisdom of ancient Rome through Livy's history, arguing that the study of ancient republics can provide lessons for contemporary political life. He discusses 
- [I](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/i.md): Machiavelli discusses the origins of cities, distinguishing between those founded by natives and those by strangers, and uses Rome as a prime example of a city founded in freedom. He emphasizes the importance of a founde
- [Of the various kinds of government; and to which of them the Roman commonwealth belonged.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/ii.md): Machiavelli discusses the three pure forms of government (monarchy, aristocracy, democracy) and their corrupt counterparts (tyranny, oligarchy, anarchy), arguing that each is unstable alone. He praises mixed government, 
- [III](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/iii.md): This chapter discusses the necessity of laws to restrain human evil inclinations, using Rome's creation of the tribunes of the people as an example. After the expulsion of the Tarquins, the nobles' hidden arrogance emerg
- [IV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/iv.md): Machiavelli argues that the dissensions between the Roman senate and the commons were not a source of disorder but the primary cause of Rome's freedom and power. He contends that these tumults led to the creation of laws
- [V](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/v.md): This chapter examines whether the guardianship of public freedom is safer in the hands of the commons or the nobles, comparing the Roman model (where it was vested in the commons) with the Spartan and Venetian models (wh
- [Chapter VI: Whether it was possible in Rome to contrive such a government as would have composed the differences between the commons and the senate](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/vi.md): Machiavelli examines whether Rome could have avoided the conflicts between the commons and senate by adopting a government like Sparta or Venice. He argues that such tranquility would have required either excluding the c
- [VII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/vii.md): Machiavelli argues that the right to accuse citizens before a tribunal is essential for preserving liberty in a republic. It deters harmful actions, provides a legal outlet for popular discontent, and prevents the resort
- [Chapter VIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/viii.md): Machiavelli contrasts the utility of formal impeachment with the destructiveness of calumny in a republic, using the story of Manlius Capitolinus's false accusations against Camillus and the Roman response as a cautionar
- [Chapter IX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/ix.md): Machiavelli argues that to found or reform a commonwealth, a single ruler must have absolute authority, as seen in Romulus's actions and the failed reforms of Agis and Cleomenes of Sparta. He contends that such means are
- [Chapter X](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/x.md): Machiavelli contrasts the praise due to founders of republics and kingdoms with the blame due to founders of tyrannies, using Roman emperors as examples. He argues that good emperors who ruled justly were secure and belo
- [Of the religion of the Romans](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xi.md): Machiavelli argues that Numa Pompilius, Romulus's successor, established religion in Rome as a crucial tool for civil order, discipline, and unity. He contrasts the roles of Romulus and Numa, asserting that religion was 
- [XII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xii.md): Machiavelli argues that religion is essential for maintaining virtue and unity in a state, and that the Roman Church's corruption has led to Italy's moral decay and political division. He contrasts the ancient Romans' re
- [XIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xiii.md): Machiavelli examines how the Romans used religion as a political instrument to reform institutions, sustain military campaigns, and quell civil disturbances. He recounts three key instances: the nobles exploiting portent
- [XIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xiv.md): Machiavelli discusses how the Romans used religious auspices pragmatically to maintain military morale and public confidence, showing that they would proceed with necessary actions even when omens were unfavorable, while
- [XV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xv.md): The Samnites, facing total defeat, resort to a religious ritual to inspire their soldiers, forcing them to swear a terrible oath before battle. Despite this, the Romans under Papirius defeat them, demonstrating that Roma
- [XVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xvi.md): Machiavelli discusses the difficulty a people accustomed to living under a prince faces in preserving freedom if they suddenly become free, using the example of Rome after the expulsion of the Tarquins. He argues that su
- [Chapter XVII: That a corrupt people obtaining freedom can hardly preserve it](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xvii.md): Machiavelli argues that a corrupt people cannot maintain freedom, using Rome as the prime example: the early Romans, uncorrupted, easily preserved liberty after expelling the Tarquins, whereas later Romans, corrupted by 
- [XVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xviii.md): Machiavelli examines the near impossibility of maintaining or establishing a free government in a corrupt city. He argues that as citizens become corrupt, original institutions become unsuitable and new laws alone cannot
- [XIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xix.md): Machiavelli argues that a weak prince can maintain a kingdom after a strong predecessor, but two consecutive weak princes will lead to ruin, using the examples of Rome's early kings, David and Solomon, and the Ottoman su
- [That the consecutive reigns of two valiant princes produce great results: and that well-ordered commonwealths are assured of a succession of valiant rulers by whom their power and growth are rapidly extended.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xx.md): This chapter argues that a well-ordered commonwealth, by electing its rulers through free suffrage, can ensure a continuous succession of valiant leaders, enabling rapid growth and power. It contrasts this with the risks
- [That it is a great reproach to a prince or to a commonwealth to be without a national army](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxi.md): Machiavelli argues that a prince or republic lacking its own national army is a grave reproach, using the example of King Tullus of Rome who, after forty years of peace, successfully trained his own citizens into soldier
- [XXII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxii.md): Machiavelli examines the combat between the three Roman Horatii and the three Alban Curiatii, drawing three key lessons: never risk all fortunes on a part of one's forces, never let merit balance crime in a well-governed
- [That we should never hazard our whole fortunes where we put not forth our entire strength; for which reason to guard a defile is often hurtful.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxiii.md): Machiavelli argues against staking a nation's entire fortune on a small fraction of its forces, as exemplified by Tullus and Metius. He warns that defending narrow passes or defiles is often harmful because it prevents t
- [XXIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxiv.md): This chapter argues that well-ordered states must maintain a strict separation between rewards for good deeds and punishments for misdeeds, never balancing past services against present crimes. Using the examples of Hora
- [XXV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxv.md): Machiavelli argues that anyone reforming a free state must preserve the semblance of old institutions to avoid unsettling the people. He uses Roman examples—retaining twelve lictors for consuls and creating the Rex sacri
- [Chapter XXVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxvi.md): Machiavelli argues that a new prince in a conquered city or province must completely overhaul all institutions—creating new magistracies, new powers, new men, and even relocating populations—to secure his rule. He cites 
- [Chapter XXVII: That men seldom know how to be wholly good or wholly bad](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxvii.md): Machiavelli recounts Pope Julius II's bold and unguarded entry into Perugia to depose Giovanpagolo Baglioni, who, despite having ample opportunity to kill or capture the Pope, failed to act. The author reflects on Baglio
- [Chapter XXVIII: Whence it came that the Romans were less ungrateful to their citizens than were the Athenians.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxviii.md): Machiavelli compares the ingratitude of Rome and Athens toward their great citizens, arguing that Rome's relative leniency stemmed from never having had its liberty subverted by a citizen after the expulsion of the kings
- [Chapter XXIX: Whether a people or a prince is the more ungrateful](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxix.md): Machiavelli examines the vice of ingratitude in both princes and peoples, tracing its origins to either avarice or suspicion. He argues that while both can be ungrateful, peoples are less often driven by avarice than pri
- [How Princes and Commonwealths May Avoid the Vice of Ingratitude](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxx.md): This chapter examines the problem of ingratitude faced by princes and commonwealths toward successful military captains. Machiavelli advises that a prince who wishes to avoid ingratitude should personally lead his armies
- [XXXI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxxi.md): The Romans were lenient in punishing their military captains, rarely imposing severe penalties for misconduct or ignorance, and often rewarding them instead, to keep their minds free from anxiety and encourage bold actio
- [XXXII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxxii.md): Machiavelli warns that rulers should not delay granting benefits to the people until danger is imminent, using the Roman example of the senate relieving the commons of taxes during Porsenna's attack. He argues that such 
- [Chapter XXXIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxxiii.md): Machiavelli argues that when a mischief has grown within or against a state, it is safer to temporize with it than to meet it with violence. He uses the example of Rome's neighbors forming a league of forty nations again
- [XXXIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxxiv.md): Machiavelli argues that the Roman dictatorship, when created constitutionally and for a limited term, was beneficial to the republic and not the cause of tyranny. He contrasts lawful magistracies with powers usurped by a
- [Why the creation of the Decemvirate in Rome, although brought about by the free and open suffrage of the citizens, was hurtful to the liberties of that republic.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxxv.md): Machiavelli examines why the Decemvirate, despite being created by popular vote, became tyrannical. He contrasts it with the dictatorship, which was checked by other magistrates, while the Ten were given absolute, unchec
- [XXXVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxxvi.md): This chapter discusses the Roman practice of allowing former high officials to serve in lower military positions without dishonor, contrasting it with modern republics like Venice where such descent is considered shamefu
- [XXXVII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxxvii.md): Machiavelli discusses the destructive effects of the Agrarian Law in Rome, which aimed to limit land ownership and distribute conquered lands, leading to prolonged conflict between the commons and nobles. He argues that 
- [XXXVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxxviii.md): This chapter examines the indecisiveness of weak republics, arguing that they are driven more by necessity than choice. Using the example of the Roman senate's prudent decision to allow the Latins and Hernicians to defen
- [XXXIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxxix.md): Machiavelli observes that the same desires and passions recur across different nations and times, using the example of Florence's mistaken abolition of the Ten of War in 1494 and Rome's similar attempt to abolish the con
- [XL: Of the creation of the Decemvirate in Rome, and what therein is to be noted.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xl.md): Machiavelli analyzes the creation of the Decemvirate in Rome, highlighting the mistakes made by both the Senate and the people that led to tyranny, and the errors of Appius Claudius in his attempt to seize power. He cont
- [XLI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xli.md): This chapter discusses the danger of abruptly shifting from leniency to severity or from humility to arrogance, using Appius's sudden transformation from a friend of the people to a tyrant as a cautionary example. It adv
- [XLII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xlii.md): This chapter examines how easily men become corrupted, using the decemvirate as an example. It notes that even those born good and well brought up can change their nature when given power and small benefits, as seen with
- [XLIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xliii.md): This chapter argues that soldiers fighting in their own cause are far more resolute and effective than those who fight merely for pay or to satisfy another's ambition. Using the example of the Romans, who were victorious
- [XLIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xliv.md): The chapter examines the helplessness of a multitude without a leader, using the Roman commons' retreat to the Sacred Hill as an example. It also warns against combining a request with a threat, as seen when the commons 
- [Chapter XLV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xlv.md): This chapter discusses the dangerous precedent of a lawmaker violating his own law, using the examples of Appius Claudius in Rome and Girolamo Savonarola in Florence. It also warns against the harm of continually renewin
- [XLVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xlvi.md): Machiavelli discusses how ambition escalates in republics: citizens initially seek to avoid injury, but as they gain power and friends through seemingly honorable means, they eventually become a threat to liberty. He cit
- [XLVII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xlvii.md): Machiavelli discusses how people deceive themselves in generalities but judge truly in particulars, using examples from Rome, Capua, and Florence to illustrate that when faced with specific choices, the commons often rec
- [XLVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xlviii.md): Machiavelli discusses how the Roman Senate managed the election of tribunes with consular powers to prevent the commons from dominating the office, either by encouraging the most noble citizens to run or by inserting a b
- [XLIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xlix.md): This chapter discusses the difficulty of framing laws to preserve freedom in cities that began in subjection, using Rome and Florence as contrasting examples. It highlights the creation of the censors in Rome as a key in
- [Chapter L](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/l.md): This chapter discusses the danger of allowing any council or magistrate to bring the government of a city to a standstill, using the example of the Roman consuls T. Q. Cincinnatus and Cn. Julius Mento, whose disagreement
- [LI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/li.md): The chapter discusses the prudence of making necessary actions appear as if they were chosen freely, using the Roman senate's decision to grant pay to soldiers as an example. The senate turned a necessity into a popular 
- [LII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/lii.md): Machiavelli argues that the safest way to check a powerful citizen's ambition is to anticipate and adopt his methods for gaining popular support, rather than opposing him directly. He illustrates this with examples from 
- [LIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/liii.md): The chapter examines how the people, deceived by a false show of advantage, often desire what would ruin them, and how large hopes and brave promises easily sway them. Using the example of the Roman commons wanting to mo
- [LIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/liv.md): This chapter discusses how a grave and authoritative figure can restrain an excited multitude, using the example of Messer Francesco Soderini calming an armed crowd in Florence, and referencing the Roman people's stubbor
- [LV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/lv.md): Machiavelli argues that a republic can only flourish where there is great equality and the populace is uncorrupted, while a principality is necessary where inequality and corruption prevail. He contrasts the virtue and r
- [LVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/lvi.md): Machiavelli discusses how great calamities are often preceded by signs, prophecies, or portents, citing examples from ancient Rome and recent Italian history, including Savonarola's prediction of Charles VIII's invasion,
- [Chapter LVII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/lvii.md): This chapter discusses the collective strength versus individual weakness of the people, using the example of Romans who moved to Veii after the Gallic invasion and later submitted to the senate's decree to return. It em
- [LVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/lviii.md): Machiavelli defends the multitude against the common accusation of fickleness and inconstancy, arguing that a people restrained by laws is wiser, more constant, and more grateful than a prince. He compares popular govern
- [LIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/lix.md): Machiavelli compares the reliability of leagues and alliances made with commonwealths versus those made with princes, arguing that while both may break faith under duress, commonwealths are generally more stable and trus
- [LX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/lx.md): Machiavelli discusses how Rome granted the consulship and other magistracies without regard to age, emphasizing that excellence and merit were valued over birth or years. He argues that this practice was necessary for a 
- [Book II](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/book-ii.md): Machiavelli discusses the growth of the Roman empire, the methods used by the Romans to expand, and the importance of liberty and popular government. He contrasts the Roman approach with other republics and examines the 
- [I](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/i.md): Machiavelli opens the Discourses by questioning whether Rome's empire was won more by fortune or by valor. He argues that while many historians credit fortune, Rome's institutions and prudent conduct were the true causes
- [II](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/ii.md): Machiavelli discusses the love of freedom among ancient nations and how republics foster greatness, contrasting the growth of free states like Rome and Athens with the decline under tyranny. He argues that servitude, esp
- [III](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/iii.md): Rome's growth is attributed to two methods: welcoming strangers as citizens and transplanting populations from conquered cities. This contrasts with Sparta and Athens, whose restrictive policies limited their populations
- [Chapter IV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/iv.md): Machiavelli examines three methods used by republics to expand their power: forming a confederation of equal states (as the Etruscans did), creating a league of allies with Rome retaining supremacy, and direct subjection
- [V](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/v.md): Machiavelli discusses how changes in religions and languages, as well as natural disasters like floods, famines, and plagues, erase the memory of the past. He argues that new sects deliberately obliterate old traditions,
- [Of the methods followed by the Romans in making war](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/vi.md): Machiavelli examines the Roman approach to warfare, emphasizing their strategy of making wars 'great and short' through immediate, decisive battles, and their use of colonies to secure conquered territories at minimal co
- [VII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/vii.md): Machiavelli discusses the amount of land the Romans assigned to colonists, arguing that it was deliberately kept small to allow more colonists to be sent and to encourage frugality. He cites Livy's account of the colony 
- [Why certain nations leave their ancestral seats and overflow the countries of others.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/viii.md): Machiavelli distinguishes between two types of war: those waged by princes or republics for dominion, and those waged by entire peoples forced by necessity to seek new lands. He illustrates the latter with the Gauls' inv
- [IX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/ix.md): This chapter examines the causes that commonly give rise to wars between states, using the accidental war between the Romans and Samnites as a primary example. It discusses how powerful states are often drawn into confli
- [Chapter X: The True Sinews of War](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/x.md): Machiavelli argues against the common opinion that money is the sinews of war, asserting instead that good soldiers are the true foundation of military strength. He supports his argument with historical examples, includi
- [XI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xi.md): This chapter warns against allying with a prince who has reputation but lacks strength, using historical examples such as the Sidicinians and Campanians, the Florentines' reliance on the French king, and the Tarentines' 
- [XII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xii.md): Machiavelli debates whether a prince should await an invasion at home or carry the war into the enemy's territory, weighing the advantages of each strategy through historical examples such as the Romans, Carthaginians, S
- [XIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xiii.md): Machiavelli argues that rising from humble to high fortunes is achieved more by fraud than by force, using examples from Philip of Macedon, Agathocles, Cyrus as described by Xenophon, and the early Roman Republic's decep
- [XIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xiv.md): Machiavelli argues that humility is often counterproductive when dealing with insolent enemies, as it only emboldens them. He uses the example of Roman patience toward the Latins, which increased Latin arrogance, and adv
- [XV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xv.md): Machiavelli argues that weak states are indecisive and that delayed decisions are always harmful. He uses the example of the Latins' council with Annius, the Lavinians' tardy aid to the Latins, and the Florentines' delay
- [XVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xvi.md): Machiavelli contrasts ancient Roman military tactics with modern practices, using the battle between the Romans and Latins under Torquatus and Decius as a case study. He details the Roman tripartite formation of hastati,
- [Chapter XVII: What importance the armies of the present day should allow to artillery; and whether the commonly received opinion concerning it be just.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xvii.md): Machiavelli examines the impact of artillery on modern warfare, arguing that it is more advantageous for attackers than defenders, and that the decline of military valor is due to poor discipline rather than firearms. He
- [XVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xviii.md): Machiavelli argues for the superiority of infantry over cavalry, citing Roman examples and modern battles to demonstrate that well-disciplined foot soldiers are the backbone of an effective army. He criticizes Italian pr
- [Chapter XIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xix.md): Machiavelli argues that ill-governed states that do not follow the valiant Roman methods of acquisition bring ruin upon themselves. He contrasts the corrupting influence of luxury (as seen in Capua) with the disciplined 
- [Of the dangers incurred by princes or republics who resort to auxiliary or mercenary arms](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xx.md): Machiavelli warns against the use of auxiliary troops, using the example of Roman legions left to defend Capua who plotted to seize the city. He argues that auxiliaries are the most dangerous type of military force becau
- [XXI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxi.md): Machiavelli discusses the Roman method of governing conquered cities by allowing them to retain their own laws under a Roman praetor, as exemplified by Capua and Antium. He contrasts this with modern practices, arguing t
- [XXII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxii.md): Machiavelli discusses how men often judge amiss in matters of importance, especially in corrupt republics where able men are sidelined. He illustrates this with the Latins' false hopes after defeat, persuaded by their pr
- [XXIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxiii.md): Machiavelli argues that rulers must avoid half-measures when punishing rebellious subjects, using the Roman subjugation of Latium and the Senate's decision to either destroy or grant citizenship to Latin cities as a mode
- [XXIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxiv.md): Machiavelli argues that fortresses are generally more harmful than beneficial for rulers, as they encourage oppressive behavior that breeds hatred among subjects, while failing to provide real security against foreign or
- [XXV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxv.md): Machiavelli argues that attacking a divided city is counterproductive, as external threats tend to unite internal factions. He uses the Roman-Veientine conflict as a case study, contrasting the Veientines' failed militar
- [XXVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxvi.md): This chapter argues that taunts and abusive language breed hatred without yielding any advantage, and that wise commanders and governors should prevent such insults. It illustrates the point with the examples of the Veie
- [Chapter XXVII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxvii.md): This chapter warns that prudent princes and republics should be content with victory, as overreaching can turn triumph into defeat. Using examples from Hannibal, Alexander and Tyre, and the Florentine Republic, Machiavel
- [XXVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxviii.md): This chapter discusses the danger of neglecting redress for grievances, using the Roman embassy to the Gauls and the assassination of Philip of Macedon as examples. The Romans sent the three Fabii as envoys to the Gauls,
- [XXIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxix.md): Machiavelli discusses how Fortune deliberately obscures the minds of men to prevent them from hindering her designs, using the Roman disaster at the Allia and the Gallic sack of Rome as a prime example. He argues that He
- [On the Strength of Arms vs. Gold](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxx.md): Machiavelli contrasts the Roman Republic's reliance on military valor and alliances with the modern practice of buying peace and friendships with money. He argues that states which disarm their subjects and pay for prote
- [XXXI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxxi.md): Machiavelli warns rulers against trusting exiled men who promise aid in conquering their homeland, using the examples of Alexander of Epirus betrayed by Lucanian exiles and Themistocles' failed promises to Darius. He arg
- [XXXII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxxii.md): Machiavelli analyzes the various methods by which the Romans captured towns, including assault, siege, stratagem, and surrender, and explains why they preferred open-field battles and attrition over costly sieges or risk
- [XXXIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxxiii.md): Machiavelli examines how the Romans entrusted their military commanders with full authority, arguing that this practice fostered boldness, speed, and personal responsibility, in contrast to the cautious and centralized c
- [Book III](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/book-iii.md): Machiavelli examines the necessity of returning to first principles for the preservation of republics and states, emphasizing the role of virtuous individuals, the renewal of institutions, and the cyclical nature of poli
- [Chapter I: The Necessity of Renewal in Republics and Sects](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/i.md): Machiavelli argues that for a republic, sect, or kingdom to endure, it must be periodically renewed by being brought back to its founding principles. This renewal can occur through external shocks (like Rome's sack by th
- [Chapter II: That on occasion it is wise to feign folly](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/ii.md): This chapter discusses the wisdom of feigning folly, using Junius Brutus as the prime example. Brutus pretended to be a fool to live securely and eventually overthrow the Roman kings. The chapter advises that those disco
- [III](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/iii.md): Machiavelli argues that after a change in government, whether from tyranny to freedom or vice versa, it is necessary to eliminate enemies of the new order, using the example of Brutus who condemned his own sons to death.
- [IV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/iv.md): This chapter examines the dangers faced by usurpers who allow those they have deposed to live, using the examples of the elder Tarquin and Servius Tullius. It argues that old injuries cannot be healed by subsequent benef
- [How an hereditary king may come to lose his kingdom](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/v.md): Machiavelli uses the example of Tarquin the Proud to argue that kings lose their kingdoms not because of isolated scandals (like the rape of Lucretia) but because they systematically violate the laws, customs, and shared
- [VI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/vi.md): Machiavelli examines the nature of conspiracies against a prince or country, detailing the difficulties, dangers, and common causes of failure. He contrasts the relative ease for those with an army (like Caesar or Agatho
- [Why it is that changes from freedom to servitude, and from servitude to freedom, are sometimes made without bloodshed, but at other times reek with blood.](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/vii.md): Machiavelli examines why some political transitions between freedom and servitude are peaceful while others are violent. He argues that governments originating in violence necessarily injure many, leading to vengeful blo
- [VIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/viii.md): Machiavelli argues that a bad citizen cannot seriously harm an uncorrupted commonwealth, using the examples of Spurius Cassius and Manlius Capitolinus to show how Rome's virtuous institutions and people resisted tyranny.
- [IX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/ix.md): Machiavelli argues that fortune depends on aligning one's methods with the times. He contrasts Fabius Maximus's cautious strategy, suited to the early Hannibalic war, with Scipio's boldness, which succeeded later. He not
- [That a captain cannot escape battle when his enemy forces it on him at all risks](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/x.md): Machiavelli argues that modern princes and republics have deviated from ancient military prudence by instructing their captains to avoid battle at all costs, mistakenly imitating Fabius Maximus. He demonstrates through h
- [XI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xi.md): Machiavelli discusses how a weaker party can prevail against a stronger coalition by withstanding the initial onslaught and using cunning to divide the opposition. He illustrates this with the Roman Senate's use of a com
- [XII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xii.md): Machiavelli discusses how a prudent captain manipulates necessity to compel his own soldiers to fight while relieving the enemy of that necessity. He illustrates with historical examples showing that when soldiers believ
- [XIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xiii.md): Machiavelli examines whether a valiant captain with a weak army or a valiant army with a weak captain is more trustworthy, using the example of Coriolanus and other Roman history to argue that both are interdependent, th
- [XIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xiv.md): Machiavelli discusses the impact of strange and unexpected sights or sounds in battle, using historical examples to show how such stratagems can either cause confusion or backfire. He emphasizes the importance of discipl
- [XV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xv.md): This chapter argues that a single commander should lead an army, using Roman history and a modern example to show that multiple leaders cause confusion and inefficiency. The Romans appointed three tribunes against the Fi
- [Chapter XVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xvi.md): Machiavelli discusses how in peaceful times, republics tend to neglect their most worthy citizens in favor of those with wealth or connections, leading to resentment and potential ruin. He cites examples from Athens (Nic
- [XVII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xvii.md): Machiavelli warns against offending a citizen and then appointing him to an important command, using the example of Claudius Nero, who risked the entire Roman state to regain his honor after being disgraced by the Senate
- [XVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xviii.md): This chapter discusses the importance of a commander's ability to foresee and understand the enemy's plans, using historical examples to illustrate how misjudgments about victory or defeat can lead to disastrous outcomes
- [XIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xix.md): This chapter examines whether indulgence or severity is more effective in controlling a multitude, using the contrasting examples of Quintius and Appius Claudius in the Roman Republic. It reconciles the opposing views of
- [How one humane act availed more with the men of Falerii, than all the might of the Roman arms](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xx.md): Camillus's humane treatment of the schoolmaster and boys of Falerii leads to the city's surrender, illustrating that acts of kindness and integrity can achieve what force cannot. The chapter also references similar examp
- [XXI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxi.md): Machiavelli examines how Hannibal and Scipio, despite using opposite methods—Hannibal through cruelty and violence, Scipio through humanity and generosity—both achieved similar successes in Italy and Spain respectively. 
- [XXII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxii.md): Machiavelli compares the contrasting leadership styles of Manlius Torquatus (severe) and Valerius Corvinus (gentle), showing how both achieved equal glory and obedience from their soldiers. He argues that severity is nec
- [Why Camillus was banished from Rome](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxiii.md): This chapter examines the reasons for Camillus's banishment, contrasting his stern and proud bearing with the more popular methods of Valerius. It highlights how Camillus's virtues—care for safety, prudence, magnanimity—
- [XXIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxiv.md): Machiavelli argues that the prolongation of military and civil commands was a key cause of Rome's eventual servitude, as it concentrated power in the hands of a few, undermined the authority of the Senate, and enabled am
- [Of the poverty of Cincinnatus and of many other Roman citizens](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxv.md): Machiavelli argues that poverty, enforced by custom rather than law, was a key source of Roman strength, as it kept citizens focused on merit and public service rather than wealth. He illustrates this with the story of C
- [How women are a cause of the ruin of states](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxvi.md): The chapter recounts a feud in Ardea over the marriage of an heiress, which escalates into armed conflict between plebeians and nobles, leading to foreign intervention and eventual Roman suppression. Machiavelli uses thi
- [XXVII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxvii.md): Machiavelli discusses how to reunite a divided city, arguing that the most effective method is to execute the ringleaders of disturbances, as the Roman consuls did at Ardea. He criticizes the modern tendency to keep subj
- [XXVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxviii.md): Machiavelli warns that republics must vigilantly monitor citizens' actions, as seemingly generous deeds can conceal seeds of tyranny. He uses the example of Spurius Melius, a wealthy Roman who privately supplied grain du
- [XXIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxix.md): Machiavelli argues that the faults of a people are caused by their prince, who either neglects his duty or shares the same defects. He uses the example of Romagna under corrupt lords and the story of Timasitheus of Lipar
- [On Envy, Authority, and the Defense of a City](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxx.md): This chapter examines how a citizen of great personal influence must overcome envy to serve his country, using Camillus as a model. It details Camillus's preparations for war against the Etruscans, Latins, and Hernicians
- [XXXI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxxi.md): Machiavelli argues that strong republics and valiant men remain constant through all changes of fortune, neither elated by success nor dismayed by adversity. He contrasts the steadfastness of Rome—exemplified by Camillus
- [Of the methods which some have used to make peace impossible](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxxii.md): This chapter examines the deliberate strategies used by leaders or factions to make peace impossible, using the revolt of the Roman colonies Caere and Velitrae and the Carthaginian mercenary mutiny as examples. In both c
- [Chapter XXXIII: That to insure victory in battle you must inspire your men with confidence in one another and in you](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxxiii.md): Machiavelli argues that victory in battle depends on inspiring soldiers with confidence, achieved through good arms, discipline, mutual familiarity, and trust in their captain. He emphasizes the role of religion in Roman
- [XXXIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxxiv.md): This chapter discusses how citizens in a republic form opinions about fellow citizens and whether the people or a prince are better at bestowing honors. It uses the example of Titus Manlius Torquatus, whose early act of 
- [Chapter XXXV: Of the danger incurred in being the first to recommend new measures; and that the more unusual the measures the greater the danger](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxxv.md): Machiavelli discusses the risks faced by citizens or counselors who advocate for new and significant measures, noting that their fate often depends on the outcome rather than the wisdom of the advice. He illustrates with
- [XXXVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxxvi.md): Machiavelli examines why the Gauls are fierce at the start of battle but weaken over time, contrasting their undisciplined impetuosity with the disciplined valor of the Roman army. He categorizes armies into three types:
- [XXXVII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxxvii.md): Machiavelli discusses the dilemma of whether to engage in skirmishes before a general engagement, especially against a new enemy. He argues that while skirmishes can help soldiers become familiar with an unfamiliar foe a
- [Of the qualities of a captain in whom his soldiers can confide](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxxviii.md): This chapter discusses the essential qualities of a military captain who can inspire confidence in his soldiers, using the example of Valerius Corvinus. It emphasizes that a captain must lead by example, demonstrating pe
- [XXXIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xxxix.md): Machiavelli argues that a good captain must have thorough knowledge of places and countries, which is best acquired through hunting. He illustrates this with the example of Publius Decius, who as military tribune saved t
- [XL](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xl.md): Machiavelli argues that fraud in war is praiseworthy and glorious, citing examples such as Hannibal's feigned flight at Lake Thrasymene and his use of oxen with lighted horns to escape Fabius Maximus, as well as Pontius 
- [XLI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xli.md): The chapter discusses the principle that when the safety of one's country is at stake, any means—whether honorable or dishonorable—are justified to preserve it. It recounts the Roman army's surrender to the Samnites and 
- [XLII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xlii.md): Machiavelli discusses the principle that promises made under compulsion need not be observed, using the Roman defeat at the Caudine Forks and Spurius Posthumius's argument that the peace was not binding on the Roman peop
- [XLIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xliii.md): Machiavelli argues that men born in the same province retain nearly the same character across all times, and that historical events repeat because human passions and dispositions remain constant. He illustrates this with
- [XLIV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xliv.md): This chapter discusses how boldness and daring can succeed where ordinary methods fail, using the Samnites' strategy to pressure the Etruscans into war and examples from Pope Julius II and M. de Foix to illustrate the pr
- [XLV](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xlv.md): Machiavelli compares the military tactics of the Roman consuls Decius and Fabius, arguing that it is safer and more praiseworthy to await and repel the enemy's attack rather than to anticipate it with an impetuous onset,
- [XLVI](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xlvi.md): Machiavelli discusses how the characteristics of families are perpetuated not by blood but by education and training, using Roman examples such as the stern Manlii, courteous Valerii, and haughty Claudii. He illustrates 
- [XLVII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xlvii.md): A good citizen should set aside private grievances for the love of his country, as demonstrated by Fabius who, despite personal enmity, nominated his enemy Papirius Cursor as dictator when the public interest demanded it
- [XLVIII](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xlviii.md): This chapter discusses the importance of suspecting fraud when an enemy appears to make a grave blunder. It uses examples from Roman history and Florentine military campaigns to illustrate how eagerness for victory can b
- [XLIX](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/xlix.md): This chapter discusses the necessity for a commonwealth to constantly create new ordinances to preserve its freedom, using examples from Rome such as the poisoning conspiracy among wives, the Bacchanalian conspiracy, and
- [Endnotes](https://www.betterreads.online/discover/discourses_on_livy_se/chapters/endnotes.md): This chapter contains the endnotes for the book, including citations and references to classical and historical sources such as Dante, Virgil, Tacitus, Sallust, Procopius, Juvenal, Suetonius, and Flavio Biondo, among oth

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